BEET  SUGAR  ANALYSIS. 


A  COMPLETE    SYSTEM    OF    INSTRUCTION    FOR 

ANALYSTS   IN  BEET  SUGAR 

FACTORIES. 


BY 

KLWOOD  s.  PEFFER,  A.  c., 


CHINO  VATJ.jfcfe»Site6DGAR  CO. 


1897. 

E.  C.  HAMILTON,  PUBLISHER. 
CHINO,  CAL. 


L 
Jr 


COPYRIGHTED  1897 
BY  ERNEST  C.  HAMILTON 


PRESS  OF  WARDEN,  THE  PRINTER. 
Los  ANGELES,  CAL. 


THE  great  interest  now  being  manifested  in  the  development  of 
the  beet  sugar  industry  in  this  country  seems  to  leave  little 
room  for  doubt  but  that  the  present  beet  sugar  production  of 
the  United  States  will  be  multiplied  many  times  within  the  next 
few  years.     With  the  establishment  of  the  industry  reference  books 
will  become  a  necessity,  and  BEET  SUGAR  ANALYSIS  was  written 
in  the  hope  that  it  will  prove  of  value  in  the  very  important  matter 
of  chemical  control  of  factories. 

It  is  intended  primarily  as  a  complete  school  for  the  beginner, 
but  the  experienced  chemist  may  occasionally  find  it  useful  for 
reference.  I  have  given  what  I  consider  to  be  the  most  practical 
and  accurate  methods  for  testfn£xe<Vejy  substance  and  solution  the 
chemist  is  called  upon  to  analyze  in  beet  sugar  work,  describing 
also  the  proper  way  to  take  samples  and  prepare  them  for  analysis. 
The  "  Pointers  "  given,  which  are  hints  on  methods  for  facilitating 
work  and  avoiding  sources  of  error,  it  is  hoped  will  help  the  young 
chemist,  as  he  could  otherwise  learn  them  only  by  experience. 
After  Chapter  I  the  "Pointers  "  are  not  separated,  but  are  written 
in  the  text.  In  addition  to  the  analysis  of  all  sugar-containing 
substances,  I  have  also  given  methods  for  analyzing  water,  lime- 
stone, coke  and  coal,  and  all  other  supplies  which  must  be  exam- 
ined chemically  to  determine  their  availability  for  sugar  work.  A 
description  of  the  most  practical  apparatus  for  use  is  given  as  an 
aid  to  new  factories.  The  reference  tables  given  have  nearly  all 
been  compiled  for  this  work  and  they  are  guaranteed  to  be  abso- 
lutely correct. 

In  the  study  of  which  this  book  was  born,  Mr.  James  G.  Oxnard 
gave  me  many  valuable  "Pointers,"  and  to  Mr.  E.  Turck  and  Dr. 
C.  Portius,  of  the  Chino  Valley  Beet  Sugar  Company,  I  am  also 
greatly  indebted  for  suggestions  and  advice. 

ELWOOD  S.  PEFFER. 

No.  513  Fillmore  Street,  TOPBKA,  KANSAS. 


REFERENCES  CONSULTED. 

The  works  of  reference  named  below,  which  were  consulted  in 
the  preparation  of  BEET  SUGAR  ANALYSIS  are  all  to  be  recom- 
mended to  the  student  : 

ATKINSON,  E.,  Ganofs  Physics,  (tenth  edition  ) 

Bulletin  No.  46,  Chemical  Division  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture. 

COMMERSON,  E.,  et  RANGIER,  E.,  "Guide  Pour  1'analysedes 
Matieres  sucrees,"  (third  edition.) 

FRESENIUS,  C.  R.,  "Quantitative  Chemische  Analyse,"  (also 
second  American  edition  ) 

FRUHLING,  R.,  und  SCHULZ,  J.,  "Anleitung  Zur  Untersuchung 
der  fiir  die  Zuckerindustriein  Betracht  kommenden  Rohmaterialien, 
etc  ,"  (fourth  edition.) 

FRUHLING,  R.,  same  as  above,  (fifth  edition  ) 

LANDOI/T,  H.,  Handbook  of  the  Polariscope. 

LEPLAY,  H.,  "Chimie  theorique  et  prateque  des  Industries  du 
Sucre." 

PREUSS,  E.,  "Leitfaden  fiir  Zuckerfabrik— Chemiker." 

Regulations  Relative  to  the  Bounty  on  Sugar  of  Domestic  Pro- 
duction, Series  7,  No.  17,  Revised,  U.  S.  Internal  Revenue. 

REMSEN,  IRA,  Inorganic  Chemistry. 

SACHS,  F.,  "  Revue  Universelle  des  Progres  de  la  Fabrication 
du  Sucre." 

SCHEiBivER,  C.,  "Anleitung  zum  Gebrauche  des  Apparates  zur 
Bestimmung  der  Kohlensauren  Kalkerde  in  der  Knochenkohle 
sowie  zur  volumetrisch— quantitativen  Analyse  der  Kohlensauren 
Salze." 

SPENCER,  G.  L/.,  A  Handbook  for  Sugar  Manufacturers  and 
their  Chemists. 

STAMMER,  K.,  "Lehrbuch  der  Zuckerfabrikation,"  (second 
edition.) 

STILLMAN,  T.  B.,  Engineering  Chemistry . 

TUCKER,  J.  H.,  Manual  of  Sugar  Analysis. 

VON  lyiPPMAN,  E.,  "Die  Zuckerarten  und  ihre  Derivate." 

WANKLYN,  J.  A.,  Water  Analysis,  (tenth  edition.) 

WINKLER,  C.,  Handbook  of  Technical  Gas  Analysis. 

WIECHMANN,  F.  G.,  Sugar  Analysis, 

WAI/LIS-TYLER,  A.  J.,  Sugar  Machinery. 


ABBREVIATIONS   AND  CONTRACTIONS. 

USED   IN   THIS   WORK. 

C.— Centigrade. 
CC. — Cubic  Centimeters. 
F. — Fahrenheit. 
F. — Frontispiece. 
Fig.— Figure  (Illustration). 
Gr.— Gramme  or  Grammes. 
Kilo. — Kilogramme. 
L.— Liter. 
M. — Meter. 

Mg. — Milligramme  or  Milligrammes. 
MM. — Millimeter  or  Millimeters. 

M. — Full  page  Illustration  of  Apparatus  for  Samples. 
Phenol. — Phenolphtalein. 
Sp.  g. — Specific  gravity. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


Preface 

References  Consulted       .     ^     .".'.    :.     .......  4 

Abbreviations  and  Contractions  5 


PART    I. 
SUGAR  ANALYSIS. 

CHAPTER  I. 
INSTRUMENTS    FOR   ANALYSIS    AND   THEIR    USE. 

Cylinders.  —  Specific  gravity.  —  Hydrometers.  —  Sucrose 
Pipettes.  —  Flasks. —  Funnels  and  filter  paper. — 
Beakers. — Polariscopes. — Scales. — Other  apparatus  .  17-42 

CHAPTER  II. 

GENERAL  METHODS  OF  ANALYSIS. 
Introductory. —  Preparation  of  samples. —  Clarification. — 
Volumetric  method. — Pipette  test. — The  Gravimeter. — 
Analysis  by  weight. — Non-normal  analysis. — Quotient 
of  purity. — Value  Coefficient. — Saline  quotient. — The 
rendement 43-52 

CHAPTER  III. 

INDIVIDUAL   SUGAR    ANALYSIS. 

Beets.  —  Cossettes.  —  Wet  pulp.  —  Pressed  pulp. — Waste 
water. — Diffusion  juice. — Lime  cakes.— Thin  juices. — 
Sweet  waters.  —  Thick  juice.  —  Syrups. —  Massecuites 
and  Sugars 55-71 


8  TABLE   OF   CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

LIME,    ALKALINITIES   AND   SATURATION    GAS. 
Lime,  milk  of  lime,  alkalinities,  CO2  in  saturation  gas      .         72-77 

CHAPTER  V. 

STEFFENS'   PROCESS   ANALYSES. 

Saccharate    of   lime. — Waste    waters. — Molasses    sacchar- 

ate  — Molasses  solution. — Saccharate  milk     ....         78-81 

CHAPTER  VI. 
INVERT   SUGAR    AND    RAFFINOSE. 

The  correct  percentage  of  Sucrose. — Sucrose  in  the  pres- 
ence of  Invert  Sugar. — Sucrose  in  the  presence  of 
Raffinose. — Percentage  of  Raffinose. — Invert  Sugar.— 
Soxhlet's  exact  method  82-88 


PART  II. 
ANALYSIS  OF  SUPPLIES  AND  OTHER  CHEMICAL  WORK. 

CHAPTER  VII. 
APPARATUS    FOR    CHEMICAL    ANALYSIS. 

Beakers. — Glass  rods. — Funnels. — Filter  paper. — Dessica- 
tors. — Crucibles  and  dishes. — Lamps  and  stoves. — 
Other  apparatus 90-94 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
Water  Analysis 95-108 

CHAPTER  IX. 
Limestone   Analysis 109-113 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS.  9 

CHAPTER  X. 
Coal,  Coke  and  Fuel  Oil 114-118 

CHAPTER  XI. 
Analysis  of  Boneblack •     .     .  119-127 

CHAPTER  XII. 
Analysis  of  Chimney  Gases      .      .     .     . 

CHAPTER  XIII. 
Analysis  of  Fertilizers    .      .  ;r.  134-140 

CHAPTER  XIV. 
Analysis  of  Refuse  Lime     ....  141-144 

CHAPTER  XV. 
Analysis  of  Syrup  or  Massecuite  Ash     .  145-150 

CHAPTER  XVI. 
MISCELLANEOUS   ANALYSES. 

Beet  seed. — Sulphur. — Anhydrous  ammonia. — Lubricating 

oils. — Fluxes  and  rust  joints. — Crude  acids. — Soda       .     151-164 


PART  III. 
PREPARATION  OF  REAGENTS. 

CHAPTER  XVII. 
Preparation  of  Reagents .     166-174 


10  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

PART  IV. 
TABLES. 

TABLE  I. 
Brix  temperature  correction 176-177 

TABLE  II. 

Comparison    of    degrees    Brix    and    Baume    and   specific 

Gravity 178-189 

TABLE  III. 
For  making  "known  sugar"  solutions 190 

TABLE  IV. 
Per  cent,  sugar  in  pulp  by  the  volumetric  method     .      .      .  191 

TABLE  V. 

Estimation  of  percentage  of  sugar  by  volumetric  method, 
for  use  with  solution  prepared  by  addition  of  10  per 
cent,  lead  acetate 192-199 

TABLE  VI. 
For  the  determination  of  coefficients  of  purity     ....     200-203 

TABLE  VII. 
For  determining  per  cent.  CaO  in  lime  with  normal  acid   .  204 

TABLE  VIII. 
CaO  with  a  normal  acid 205 

TABLE  IX. 
Comparison  of  thermometric  scales 206-207 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS.  II 

TABLE  X. 
Partial  list  of  atomic  weights 208 

TABLE  XI. 
Factors  used  in  qualitative   analysis 209-210 

TABLE  XII. 

Tables  for  the  conversion  of  metric  weights  and  measures 
into  customary  United  States  equivalents  and  the  re- 
verse .  211-220 


INDEX. 
Index  221-224 


ADVERTISEMENTS. 
Advertisements  .     225-243 


APPARATUS   IN   FRONTISPIECE. 

1  and  2. — Siphon  bottles  for  water  and  lead  acetate. 

3. —  Porcelain  evaporating  dish. 

4. — Sieve  for  lime  samples. 

5. — Test  tubes  and  rack  for  alkalinity  samples. 

6  — Griffin  beaker. 

7. — Conical  assay  flask. 

8.— Ether  or  indicator  bottle. 

9. — Dessicator. 

10  and  11.— Mortars  for  chemical  analysis. 
12. — Mortar  for  lime-cake  analysis. 
13. — Siphon  bottle  for  acetic  acid. 
14  — Alkalinity  sampler. 

15. — Scale  for  lime-cakes.  * 

16. — Box  with  weights. 
17. — Flasks  for  sugar  analysis. 
18  — German  silver  scoop. 
19.— Sucrose  pipette. 

20  — Burette  stand  with  Mohr's  burettes. 

21  — Westphal  specific  gravity  balance. 
22.- — Tin  cylinder. 

23.— Glass  cylinder. 

24. — Tumbler  for  dissolving  samples. 

25. — Spatula  for  saccharate  samples. 
26  and  30.— Test  tubes  with  foot. 

27  — Thermometer. 
28  and  29  — Hydrometers. 

31  — Beaker  with  lip. 

32. — Air  funnel  for  syrup  test. 

33  — Coal  oil  lamp  stove. 

34. — Beaker  without  lip. 

35. — Alkalinity  apparatus. 

36. — 20CC  cup  for  measuring  alkalinity  samples. 
37  and  371  — Washing  bottles. 

38  —Student's  lamp. 

39.— Graduate. 

40. — Polarization  tubes. 

41. — Schmidt  and  Haensch  polariscope. 

42. —  Polarization   tube   with    water   jacket   and  introduced 

thermometer. 

43  and  431 — Siphon  arrangement  for  cooling  solution  in    polariza- 
tion tube. 


CHAPTER  I. 

INSTRUMENTS  FOR  ANALYSIS  AND  THEIR  USE. 

1.  Cylinders  are  the  most  convenient  vessels  for  hold- 
ing solutions  to  be  tested.  For  syrups,  massecuites,  cos- 
settes,  and  other  regular  laboratory  tests,  use  glass  cylinders 
about  12  inches  high  and  2  inches  in  diameter,  without 
a  lip.  (Fig.  1.)  For  beet  tests  use  tin  cylinders  about  10J 


3 


J_ 


Fig.   1.  Fig.  2.  Fig.  3. 

inches  high  and  1^  inches  in  diameter,  having  a  form 
similar  to  Fig.  3.  For  Steffens'  hot  waste  water  and  other 
solutions  having  a  low  brix,  a  10-inch  test  tube  1  inch  in 
diameter  may  be  used.  The  Steffens'  cold  waste  water 
sample  is  usually  a  small  one,  on  account  of  the  trouble  in 
filtering  a  large  sample,  and  its  density  may  be  taken  in  a 
6x^  test  tube,  preferably  one  with  a  foot  (Fig.  2),  the 
hydrometer  used  being  the  Brix  5-9  described  in  2b.  In 
using  a  cylinder  or  a  test  tube,  incline  it  slightly  and  pour 
in  the  solution  down  the  sides  to  avoid  foam.  In  cossette 


1 8          INSTRUMENTS    FOR   ANALYSIS   AND   THEIR   USE. 

and  beet  juices  .the  air,  which  is  usually  contained,  will 
come  to  the  top  and  the  bubbles  formed  may  be  skimmed 
off  with  a  spoon.  A  little  ether  may  be  used  in  allaying 
any  unavoidable  foam,  but  it  should  always  be  allowed  to 
evaporate,  as  it  influences  the  reading  of  the  hydrometer. 

POINTERS. 

Clean  glass  cylinders  immediately  after  using. 

Tin  cylinders  should  be  cleaned  thoroughly  with  a  rag  every 
day  when  in  use.  If  dirt  is  left  in  them  it  will  ferment. 

Do  not  make  a  habit  of  using  ether  to  allay  foam  in  cylinders. 
Use  it  only  when  absolutely  necessary. 

The  cylinder  in  use  should  always  be  set  on  a  level  place. 

2.  Specific  Gravity* — There  are  a  number  of  instru- 
ments made  for  determining  exact  specific  gravity,  one  of 
the  best  of  which  is  the  Westphal  balance  shown  in  F. 
21.  However,  the  author's  experience  has  been  that  for 
beet  sugar  laboratory  work  there  is  no  method  as  practi- 
cal as  actual  weighing. 

(a)  The  Pycnometer,  a  glass  flask  with  a  long  tubular 
stopper  (Fig.  4)  is  made  for  this  purpose.  The  best  size  is 
made  to  hold  50CC  of  distilled 
water  at  17^°C.  This  is  also 
considered  to  be  50^.  The 
gramme  is  equal  in  weight  to 
lcc  of  water  weighed  in  vacuo 
at  its  maximum  density — 4°C. 
It  is  more  practical  in  sugar 
work  to  take  17^4°,  and  polar- 
iscopes  are  constructed  for  solu- 
tions made  up  at  this  tempera- 
ture. To  find  the  specific  grav- 
ity>of  any  solution,  thoroughly 
clean  and  dry  the  pycnometer  Fig.  4. 


INSTRUMENTS   FOR   ANALYSIS   AND   THEIR   USE.  1 9 

and  weigh.  Then  fill  with  the  Quid  at  17^°CM  seeing  that 
no  air  is  contained.  Put  in  the  stopper  and  wipe  off  care- 
fully any  solution  that  comes  through  the  tube.  Weigh 
again  and  subtract  the  weight  of  the  pycnometer  to  find 
the  weight  of  the  solution.  Multiply  this  by  two,  and 
remove  the  decimal  point  two  places  to  the  left  to  find  the 
specific  gravity. 


Example  : 

Weight  of  pycnometer  and  fluid 78.642  gr. 

Weight  of  pycnometer 26.856  gr. 


Weight  of  fluid 51.786  gr. 

Multiplying  by 2 


103.572  gr. 
Moving  decimal  point  two  places 1.03572  sp.  g. 


The  specific  gravity  of  a  liquid  or  a  solid  is  the  ratio  of 
its  weight  to  the  weight  ot  the  same  volume  of  water.  In 
the  example  given  the  weight  of  the  fluid  is  51.786gr. 
and  the  weight  of  the  same  volume  of  water  is  50gr. 
50:51.786::!  :x,  or  x  =  51.786-7-50=  1.03572.  If  100CC 
were  taken,  the  division  by  100  would  be  accomplished  by 
moving  the  decimal  point  two  places  to  the  left.  As  this 
figuring  is  much  easier,  we  can  multiply  by  two  and  con- 
sider that  100  has  been  taken  instead  of  50.  • 

Common  50CC  flasks  can  be  used  instead  of  pycnom- 
eters  and,  in  fact,  are  more  practical  for  most  analyses,  the 


20          INSTRUMENTS    FOR    ANALYSIS   AND    THEIR    USE. 

only  advantage  in  the  latter  being  that  the  stopper  pre- 
vents evaporation.  In  using  a  flask,  select  one  with  as 
small  a  neck  as  possible  and  cut  off  about  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  above  the  mark.  Test  by  weighing  it  in  50grof  water 
atl?iC.  (See  4.) 

(b)  Hydrometers  are  used  for  determining  the  dens- 
sity  of  fluids  in  analysis  and  in  factory  work.  The 
Brix  hydrometer  is  used  for  analysis.  It  is  graduated 
according  to  a  scale,  by  which  it  indicates  the  percentage 
by  weight  of  sugar  when  immersed  in  a  solution  of  pure 
sugar.  (See  19.)  It  is  properly  called  a  "Saccharometer." 
The  Balling  saccharometer  is  the  same  as  the  Brix.  The 
Beaume  hydrometer  is  generally  used  for  taking  the 
density  of  thick  fluids  in  the  work  of  the  factory.  It  is  a 
specific  gravity  hydrometer,  graduated  according  to  an 
arbitrary  scale  adopted  by  Antoine  Beaume,  a  Parisian 
chemist.  He  dissolved  15  parts  of  common  salt  (by 
weight)  in  85  parts  of  water.  The  point  to  which  the 
hydrometer  sunk  in  this  solution  was  marked  15°  and  the 
scale  between  this  and  zero  was  divided  into  15  parts, 
divisions  of  the  same  size  then  being  made  from  the  15° 
below  to  the  bulb.  The  Beaume  hydrometer  for  liquids 
lighter  than  water  (See  76)  also  has  a  salt  solution  for  its 
basis.  The  point  on  the  stem  to  which  it  sinks  in  water  is 
marked  10°  and  the  zero  is  the  point  where  it  stands  in  a 
solution  of  10  parts  common  salt  and  90  parts  water.  This 
is  divided  into  10  parts,  the  same  divisions  then  being 
made  on  the  rest  of  the  scale  up  to  100. 

The  Beaume  hydrometer  best  adapted  to  general  fac- 
tory work  is  graduated  from  0  to  50  in  %  degrees.  Of  the 


INSTRUMENTS  FOR    ANALYSIS   AND   THEIR   USE.          21 

Brix  and  Balling  saccharometers  there  should  be 
a  well  selected  variety.  The  30  to  60  in  1-5  degrees 
and  the  60  to  100  in  ^  degrees  may  be  used  for 
taking  densities  in  factory  work.  Sweet  waters 
are  taken  with  a—  5  to  +  5  Brix,  graduated  in  y? 
degrees.  For  beet  analysis  an  instrument  grad- 
uated from  10  to  30,  or  10  to  20,  in  1-10  degrees 
is  used  ;  for  cossettes  and  sugarhouse  analyses  one 
graduated  from  10  to  20  in  1-10  degrees  (See  Fig. 
5)  ;  for  diffusion  juice  one  graduated  from  5  to  15 
in  1-10  degrees,  and  for  waste  waters  one  from  0 
to  5  in  1-10  degrees.  A  Brix  graduated  from  0  to 
25  in  1-10  degrees  is  an  excellent  instrument  for 
general  work,  and  it  may  be  used  for  nearly  all 
analyses.  Many  chemists  prefer  it  for  beet  analy- 
sis. When  the  Steffens  process  is  used  the  best 
saccharometer  for  cold  waste  waters  is  the  5  to  9 
Brix  graduated  in  1-10  degrees.  The  instrument 
has  a  bulb  2^  inches  long  and  ^  inch  in  diame- 
ter, and  is  especially  adapted  for  the  test  tube  de- 
scribed in  1.1*  When  a  special  saccharometer 
is  desired  for  hot  waste  waters,  an  instrument 
graduated  from  3  to  7  in  1-10  degrees  may  be  ob- 
tained. All  instruments  should  be  made  for  a 
temperature  of  17^°C. 

In  taking  the   density   ot   a  solution    with    a 
hydrometer,   it    must    be   entirely   free   from    air 
bubbles.      Have   the   instrument   clean   and     dry 
Fig.  5.    before    using    and    immerse    it   carefully   in    the 
fluid,    keeping    it    from    touching    the    sides    of 
the   cylinder.  T-!  When   it    has    come    to   rest,    read   the 
graduation.     The  fluid  is  raised   around  the  stem  of  the 
instrument  by  capillary  attraction  and  the  correct  reading 


22 


INSTRUMENTS    FOR    ANALYSIS   AND    THEIR   USE. 


is  at  the  bottom  of  this,  being  on  a  level  with  the  top  of 
the  solution.  In  Fig.  6  the  correct  reading  is  11.0  instead 
of  10.8,  as  it  appears  to  be.  In  taking 
the  density  of  a  solution,  the  temper- 
ature is  taken  at  the  same  time.  If  a 
solution  is  colder  or  hotter  than  normal 
temperature  it  is  obvious  that  its  density 
is  greater  or  less  than  normal,  so  that 
a  correction  must  be  made  for  tem- 
perature.* (See  Table  I.) 

Hydrometers  are  most  easily  tested 
by  immersing  them  in  a  solution  the 
specific  gravity  of  which  is  known 
and  comparing  the  reading  with  the 
sp.  g.  (See  Table  II.)  It  is  a  good  plan 
Fig.  6.  to  have  at  least  three  "control"  saccha- 

rometers  graduated  from  0  to  10,  10  to  20,  and  20  to  30,  in 
1-10  degrees.  These  instruments,  when  found  to  be  abso- 
lutely accurate,  may  be  used  for  testing  other  saccharom- 
eters  by  comparison. 

POINTERS. 

Keep  the  hydrometers  in  an  earthen  slop  jar  or  tin  bucket 
filled  with  water  and  having  a  sheet  of  rubber  covering  the  bottom. 

Do  not  buy  saccharometers  with  short,  thick  bulbs.  They 
cannot  be  used  with  accuracy  in  a  cylinder  of  the  size  that  is  most 
practical  for  sugar  work.  The  10-20  Brix,  which  is  most  often  used, 
should  have  a  bulb  about  4^  inches  long  and  a  6-inch  stem. 

GO  The  Dry  Substance  is  the  percentage  of  total  solids 
found  by  weight.  It  is  generally  determined  in  order  to 
find  the  "real  purity"  (See  19)  of  syrups  and  masse- 

*  Taking  the  density  of  a  hot  solution  isjiot  as  accurate  as  taking  it  after  the 
solution  has  cooled  to  nearly  normal  temperature.  In  a  hot  solution  the  tem- 
perature may  change  during  the  operation  and  the  correction  for  temperature 
will  be  incorrect. 


INSTRUMENTS   FOR  ANALYSIS    AND  THEIR   USE.          23 

cuites.  To  find  the  dry  substance,  weigh  a  scoop  con- 
taining about  15*r  of  powdered  glass  orsand(See  14O)  and 
a  small  glass  rod  to  be  used  for  stirring.  Add  about  2gr 
of  the  substance  to  be  tested  and  weigh  again.  Mix  the 
sand  (or  glass)  and  the  substance  thoroughly  by  using  the 
glass  rod.  Place  in  a  drying  oven  for  two  hours  and  keep 
a  temperature  of  100°C,  but  be  careful  that  it  does  not  get 
higher.  Then,  after  cooling  in  a  dessicator,  weigh  and 
return  to  drying  oven.  Repeat  this  until  the  scoop  and 
contents  has  a  constant  weight,  i.  e.,  that  there  is  no  fur- 
ther loss  by  drying,  proving  that  all  the  water  has  been 
driven  off.  Determine  the  amount  of  water  lost  by  sub- 
tracting the  weight  after  drying  from  the  weight  before 
drying.  The  weight  of  the  water  lost  divided  by  the 
weight  of  the  substance  used  will  give  the  per  cent,  of 
water  lost,  and  subtracting  this  from  100  will  give  the  per 
cent,  of  dry  substance. 

Example : 

Weight  of  scoop,  sand,  rod,  and  substance 51.613  gr. 

Weight  of  scoop,  sand,  and  rod  49.381  gr. 

Subtracting,  gives  weight  of  substance , 2.232  gr. 

Weight  of  scoop  and  contents  before  drying 51.613  gr. 

Weight  of  scoop  and  contents  after  drying 51.402  pr. 

Subtracting,  gives  weight  of  water  lost 211  gr. 

.211-^2.232=  0945=9.45  per  cent,  of  water  lost. 
100—9.45=90.55  per  cent,  dry  substance. 

3.  Sucrose  Pipettes  are  in  general  use  in  this  country 
for  most  analyses,  although  they  have  not  been  adopted  in 
Europe.  (See  1O).  They  are  so  made  that  when  a  solu- 
tion is  drawn  into  the  pipette  to  the  graduation  correspond- 
ing to  the  reading  of  the  brix  of  the  solution  the 
amount  of  solution  in  the  pipette  will  weigh  52.096*r. 


INSTRUMENTS   FOR    ANALYSIS   AND    THEIR   USE- 


For 
iucrose 


The  instrument  should  be  graduated  from  10  to 
25.  (Fig.  7.)  In  using  a  pipette,  first  rinse  it 
inside  with  the  solution  to  be  tested  and  then  draw 
in  the  solution,  by  aspiration,  to  the  graduation 
corresponding  to  the  reading  of  the  brix*  ;  let  the 
solution  drop  into  the  100CC  flask  and  run  a  stream 
of  water  through  the  pipette,  to  wash  every 
particle  of  the  solution 
into  the  flask.  In  wash- 
ing the  pipette,  hold  the 
flask  in  the  third  and 
little  fingers  of  the  left 
hand,  using  the  index 
finger  and  thumb  to 
twirl  the  instrument 
while  the  water  is  pass- 
ing through.  (See  Fig. 
8.)  In  testing  a  pipette, 
if  a  solution  of  a  known 
brix  is  drawn  in  to  the 
proper  graduation  and 
dropped  into  the  scoop 
of  a  scale  or  tared  vessel, 
if  its  weight  is  nearly, 
but  not  quite,  52.096*' 
the  pipette  may  be  ad- 
judged correct. 

Fig.  7. 

POINTERS. 

To  read  the  graduation  in  a 
pipette,  always  take  the  bottom  of 
the  meniscus,  the  same  as  in  a  flask . 
(See  Fig.  9.) 

*  This  refers  to  the  reading  without  temperature  correction 


INSTRUMENTS   FOR    ANALYS 


Be  sure  there  are  no  bubbles  in  the  pipette.  They  will  come 
to  the  top  if  present,  and  can  be  drawn  out  into  the  mouth. 

Pipettes  in  constant  use  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  every  few 
days.  Rinse  with  gun  shot  and  diluted  muriatic  acid.  Pipettes 
used  for  beet  analysis  should  be  cleaned  every  evening  with  gun- 
shot and  strong  muriatic  acid. 

The  graduations  on  a  pipette  may  be  more  easily  observed 
if  red  lead  is  rubbed  into  the  marks.  Take  a  small  ball  of  red  lead 
and  rub  it  up  and  down  the  graduations.  Wipe  off  with  a  cloth 
and  the  lead  will  remain  in  the  marks.  Chalk  or  lamp-black  (mixed 
with  turpentine)  may  be  used  for  the  same  purpose. 

4.  Flasks  for  Sugar  Analysis  are  graduated  to  hold 
50CC,  50  and  55CC,  100CC,  100  and  110CC,  and  201.4  and  221.4CC. 
The  last  is  for  beet  analysis  (See  23C),  and  should  have 
a  neck  wide  at  the  top  and  narrowing  down  to  the  gradua- 
tion. The  100-110  flask  should  have  a  neck  ^  of  an  inch 
in  diameter,  but  the  other  flasks  should  all  be  small-necked 
for  accurate  work.  When  the  100-110  flask  is  used  for  any 
other  volumetric  (14)  analysis  than  pulp 
it  should  also  have  a  small  neck.  In  filling 
flasks  let  the  bottom  of  the  meniscus  of  the 
fluid  come  to  the  graduation.  (See  fig  9.) 
This  rule  also  applies  to  the  reading  of 
pipettes  and  burettes.  Any  foam  that 
forms  in  a  flask  may  be  gotten  rid  of  by 
the  use  of  ether.  The  bottle  shown  in  F 
8  is  a  convenient  ether  bottle.  A  small 
glass  tube  is  fitted  in  a  ground  glass 
stopper,  and  is  of  such  length  that  when 
the  stopper  is  in  the  bottle,  the  tube  reaches 
nearly  but  not  quite  to  the  bottom.  Ether 
is  taken  from  the  bottle  by  put- 
Fig.  9.  ting  a  finger  over  the  top  of  the 
tube,  as  with  a  pipette.  The  dropping  bottle 
shown  in  Fig.  10  is  often  used  for  ether,  but  it 
is  not  as  good  as  the  one  above  described.  Fig.  10. 


26          INSTRUMENTS   FOR    ANALYSIS   AND   THEIR    USE. 

To  test  a  flask,  clean  and  dry  it  thoroughly,  weigh,  fill 
with  water  at  17^°C  to  the  mark,  and  weigh  again.  The 
weight  of  the  water  should  be  as  many  gr.  as  the  flask 
holds  cc.  (See  2a.)  It  is  usual  to  test  all  flasks 
as  soon  as  they  are  purchased  and  either  of  the  fol- 
lowing methods  will  be  found  quick  and  accurate  when  a 
large  number  of  flasks  are  to  be  tested. 

Test  a  flask  by  water  as  above,  to  use  as  a  standard. 
Fill  it  with  clean  mercury  to  the  mark.  Clean  and  dry  all 
flasks  to  be  tested,*  then  pour  the  mercury  into  each  one 
until  all  are  tested.  The  mercury  for  this  method  must  be 
perfectly  clean  and  dry.  The  writer  has  always  found  it 
advisable  to  test  4  or  5  flasks  and  then  return  the  mercury 
to  the  standard  flask,  to  be  sure  that  none  has  been  lost. 
Keep  the  flask  in  a  clean  mortar  while  pouring  in  the  mer- 
cury, to  prevent  loss  in  case  of  accident. 

The  following  method  by  pipette  is  preferable  to  the 
use  of  mercury  in  the  fact  that  it  is  more  rapid,  although 
greater  care  must  be  exercised.  Use  a  pipette  graduated 
for  the  same  number  of  cc  as  the  flasks  to  be  tested. 
Determine  its  accuracy  by  filling  to  the  mark  with  water 
at  17  ^°C,  then  letting  the  water  run  out  into  a  tared  ves- 
sel. Gently  blow  through  the  pipette,  so  that  no  drops  of 
water  remain.  The  weight  should  be  lgr  for  every  cc 
for  which  the  pipette  is  graduated,  and  if  it  is  either  more 
or  less,  find  by  repeated  weighings  where  the  mark  should 
be  to  make  the  pipette  hold  the  exact  number  of  gr.,  and 
re-mark  accordingly.  To  test  a  flask,  clean  and  dry  it 
thoroughly;  fill  the  pipette  to  the  mark  with  water  at  17^°C, 
wiping  the  outside  dry,  and  let  the  water  run  into  the 
flask,  blowing  out  the  last  drops.  For  flasks  having  two 

*  After  cleaning  the  flask  with  water,  rinse  it  with  a  small  amount  of  alcohol 
or  ether  and  it  will  dry  quickly. 


INSTRUMENTS    FOR    ANALYSIS   AND   THEIR    USE.  27 

graduations,  determine  the  correctness  of  the  lower 
mark  as  above  and  add  immediately,  with  .a  smaller 
pipette,  the  number  of  cc  of  water  for  which  the  addi- 
tional mark  is  made.  Any  flasks  which  are  found  to  be 
incorrect  by  at  least  two  tests  should  be  re-marked. 

POINTERS. 

Be  sparing  in  the  use  of  ether.  It  is  usually  sufficient  to  hold 
the  end  of  the  ether  bottle  tube  in  the  foam. 

Flasks  may  be  kept  conveniently  by  inverting  them  over  wooden 
pegs  driven  in  the  edge  of  the  shelf  over  the  analyst's  table.  The 
pegs  should  be  about  three  inches  high,  about  5-16  inch  in  diameter, 
and  should  incline  at  a  slight  angle  toward  the  operator. 

A  quarter  inch  glass  tube  six  inches  long  may  be  used  as  a 
pipette  for  taking  out  the  extra  solution  whenever,  in  analysis,  a 
flask  is  accidentally  filled  above  the  mark. 

5.  Funnels  and  Filter  Paper. — Funnels  for  sugar  analy- 
sis should  be  about  3  ^  inches  in  diameter  and  ot  either 
glass  or  hard  rubber.  The  rubber  funnel  is  much  more 
serviceable,  but  most  chemists  prefer  the  glass  funnel,  as 
dirt  or  sugar  can  be  detected  on  the  latter  more  readily 
than  on  the  former.  The  stems  on  funnels  should  not  be 
more  than  half  an  inch  long. 

Filter  paper  should  be  in  sheets  23  inches  square. 
When  a  sheet  of  this  size  is  cut  into  nine  equal  square 
parts,  each  part  folded  will  be  of  the  proper  size  for  use  in 
analysis.  After  folding,  cut  each  filter  paper  round  and  of 
such  size  that  the  edges  will  not  extend  above  the  funnel. 
Heavy  white  paper  is  the  best  for  sugar  analysis  ;  gray 
paper  is  much  cheaper  but  it  filters  too  slowly. 

POINTERS. 

In  trimming  filter  papers  save  the  scraps  for  cleaning  polariza- 
tion tubes. 

When  a  solution  filters  slowly,  cover  the  funnel  with  a  watch 
glass  to  prevent  evaporation. 

Creasing  a  filter  paper  makes  a  solution  filter  faster. 


28  INSTRUMENTS   FOR    ANALYSIS   AND   THEIR   USK. 

6.  Beakers  to  receive   the   filtrates   in    analysis    are 
usually  small  common  glass  tumbers,  which  are   lipped  in 
the  laboratory  where  they  are  employed.     Tumblers  of  the 
following  size   will   be    found   very    convenient:      Three 
inches  high,  two  inches  inside  bottom   diameter,  and  two 
and  one-half  inches  inside  top  diameter.     The  writer  has 
used  tumblers   slightly   smaller  than  this,  each  measure- 
ment  being  an  eighth  of  an   inch  less,  and  believes  that 
they   cannot  be   excelled  for  practical   work.     They  each 
weigh  about  92gr.     Lips  are  not  at  all  necessary  on  beakers 
of  this  size.     (See   F  34.)     Another  good  form  of  beaker 
is  shown   in  F  31.     It  is  4  inches  high,   with  a  diameter 
of  \y(  inches  at  the  top  and  of  2^  inches  at  the  bottom, 
inside  measurement.     One  American  factory  tried   alumi- 
num beakers,  but  found  them  unsatisfactory  as  they  were 
too  hard  to  clean. 

POINTERS. 

Discard  the  first  few  drops  of  a  filtrate. 

When  the  filtrate  of  syrups  and  juices  is  too  dark  to  be  read  in 
the  polariscope,  add  about  1  gr.  of  finely  powdered  bone  dust  to  the 
filter  paper  and  filter  again.  As  the  bone  dust  may  absorb  a  small 
amount  of  sugar,  discard  the  first  half  of  the  second  filtrate. 

Beakers  are  more  easily  cleaned  with  cold  water  than  with  hot, 
on  account  of  the  lead  on  them.  (J.  E.  VARNER.)  They  must  be 
thoroughly  dried. 

7.  (a)    Polariscopes.* — When   a   ray  of  light  passes 
through  a  crystal  of  Iceland  spar  it  is  divided  into  two  rays 
of  equal  intensity,  one  of  which  is  called  the  ordinary  ray 
and   the   other  the  extraordinary  ray.      The  former  is  in 
the  principal  plane  and  the  latter  is  in  a  plane  at   right 
angles  to  the  principal  plane.      When  the  rays  possess  this 

*  The  explanation  of  the  polariscope  here  given  is  necessarily  very  brief. 
The  student  is  referred  to  Ganot's  Physics  or  I^andolt's  Handbook  of  the  Polar- 
iscope for  a  complete  and  clear  description  of  the  instrument. 


INSTRUMENTS   FOR    ANALYSIS   AND   THEIR    USE.          2Q 

peculiarity  they  are  said  to  be  polarized.  Polarization  may 
also  be  effected  by  reflection,  as  on  water,  mirrors,  etc.  In 
most  polariscopes  the  light  is  polarized  by  means  of  a 
Nicol's  prism  which  is  so  constructed  that  it  transmits  only 
one  ray,  while  the  other  is  suppressed  by  reflection  out  of 
the  prism.  The  prism  is  placed  in  the  polariscope  so  that 
the  transmitted  ray  goes  straight  through  the  instrument. 
Two  lenses  are  used  to  intensify  the  light  from  the  lamp 
before  it  meets  the  Nicol's  prism.  The  use  of  the  polar- 
ized ray  may  be  described  as  follows  : 

Polariscopes  designed  for  sugar  analysis  (called  saccha- 
rimeters)  are  based  on  what  is  termed  rotatory  polarization. 
This  is  the  effect  produced  by  certain  substances  (most 
notably  quartz)  and  solutions  (e.  g.,  sugar)  which  have  the 
power  of  rotating  to  a  different  degree  the  planes  of  polari- 
zation of  the  various  colored  rays  which  compose  white 
light.  To  illustrate  :  If  a  thin  section  of  a  quartz  crystal 
cut  at  right  angles  to  its  axis  is  placed  so  that  a  ray  of 
polarized  light  passes  through  it  and  falls  upon  a  mirror, 
the  image  of  the  quartz  will  appear  in  color  in  the  mirror. 
If  the  mirror  is  on  an  angle  and  is  slowly  turned,  the  colors 
of  the  image  will  change  and  appear  in  the  same  order  as 
is  found  in  the  solar  spectrum — red,  yellow,  green,  blue 
and  violet.  In  some  varieties  of  quartz  these  colors  are 
shown  in  the  order  named  when  the  mirror  is  turned  to  the 
right,  and  in  others  when  it  is  turned  to  the  left.  Violet 
rotates  the  plane  of  polarization  to  the  greatest  degree  and 
red  to  the  least,  and  the  extent  of  the  rotation  depends 
upon  the  thickness  of  the  quartz  plate  which  is  traversed. 
Sugar  solutions  have  the  power  of  rotating  planes  of 
polarization,,  and,  as  in  the  case  of  quartz  crystals,  some 
solutions  rotate  the  plane  to  the  right  and  others  to  the 
left.  The  former  are  said  to  be  dextrogyrate,  as  sucrose 


30          INSTRUMENTS   FOR    ANALYSIS    AND   THEIR   USE. 

and  raffinose,  and  the  latter  laevogyrate,  as  laevulose  and 
sorbinose.  The  rotatory  power  of  a  concentrated  sugar 
solution  is  only  about  1-36  of  that  of  quartz,  hence  the 
column  of  solution  to  be  traversed  by  the  polarized  light 
must  be  of  considerable  length.  The  plane  of  the  polar- 
ized light  is  rotated  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  according  to 
the  concentration  or  dilution  of  the  solution.  Sacchari- 
meters  are  constructed  so  that  this  angle  of  rotation  may 
be  determined.  After  the  polarized  light  passes  through 
the  column  of  sugar  of  known  length  it  is  met  by  a  layer 
of  quartz  which  has  a  variable  thickness  and  can  be  moved 
either  to  the  right  or  to  the  left,  to  compensate  for  the 
rotation  produced  by  the  sugar  solution.  This  movement 
is  effected  by  means  of  a  rackwork  and  pinion  turned  by  a 
milled  head,  and  as  the  plate  is  moved  its  thickness  at  the 
point  where  the  light  passes  through  is  measured  by  a 
scale.  The  thickness  of  a  plate  necessary  to  compensate 
the  rotation  of  a  definite  amount  of  pure  sugar  made  up  in 
a  certain  way  is  marked  as  100  on  the  scale,  and  the  thick- 
ness of  the  plate  which  gives  a  clear  view  when  no  active 
substance  is  in  the  polariscope,  is  marked  as  zero.-  The 
scale  is  then  sub-divided  into  100  parts,  and  when  a  solu- 
tion of  sugar  prepared  in  the  necessary  way,  is  read  in  the 
instrument,  the  scale  not  only  measures  the  thickness  of  the 
plate  which  compensates  for  the  rotation  of  the  solution, 
but  in  doing  so  shows  the  percentage  of  sugar  the  solution 
contains.  The  reading  of  this  scale  will  be  described 
later.  After  passing  through  the  movable  plate  the  light 
meets  a  double  refracting  prism  (usually  a  Nicol's  prism) 
which  is  called  the  analyzer.  This  prism  gives  a  field  of 
vision  by  which  the  polar iscopist,  in  reading  the  instru- 
ment, can  tell  when  the  movable  quartz  plate  is  in  proper 
position.  This  field  is  circular  and  is  divided  in  half  by  a 


INSTRUMENTS   FOR    ANALYSIS   AND    THEIR   USE.          31 

perpendicular  line.      The  observation  of  it  is  described  in 
the  next  paragraph. 

The  optical  arrangement  of  a  single  compensation 
Schmidt  and  Haensch  polariscope,*  is  shown  in  the  follow- 
ing figure : 


1.        2.          3.  4.    5.      6.  7.        8.     9. 

Fig.  11. 

1. — Eye-piece. 

2.— Objective. 

3. — Nicol  prism,  analyzer. 

4. — Quartz  wedge,  fixed,  bearing  vernier. 

5. — Quartz  wedge,  moveable,  bearing  scale. 

6. — Quartz  wedge,  having  rotatory  power  opposite  to  4  and  5. 

7. — Nicol  prism,  polarizer. 

8.— Lens. 

9.— Lens.  * 

In  Fig.  12,  the  arrangement  of  the  double  compensa- 
tion polariscope  is  shown.  The  two  prisms  /N1  and  /\2 
are  of  opposite  rotatory  power,  one  being  dextro-  and  the 
other  laevo-rotary.  At  H  is  the  screw  for  adjusting  the 
analyzer.  The  screw  for  setting  the  scale  (see  next  para- 
graph,) is  on  the  left  side  of  the  instrument,  between  the 
two  moveable  wedges.  The  inclined  mirror  above  K  is  one 
of  the  latest  Schmidt  and  Haensch  improvements,  and  is 
for  the  purpose  of  doing  away  with  a  second  lamp  for  read- 
ing the  scale. 

*  The  Schmidt  and  Haensch  polariscope  is  the  only  instrument  described 
here,  as  it  has  been  adopted  by  the  U.  S.  Government,  and  most  of  the  sugar 
factories  in  operation  in  this  country. 


32  INSTRUMENTS   FOR    ANALYSIS   AND   THEIR   USE. 


INSTRUMENTS   FOR    ANALYSIS   AND   THEIR    USE.  33 

(.b)  Operation. — Adjust  the  lamp  so  that  it  gives  a 
bright  steady  light.  Turn  the  polariscope  towards  the 
lamp  and  look  through  the  telescope  J.  (See  Fig.  12.)  A 
round  luminous  field  will  be  seen,  and  the  telescope  should 
be  focused  by  moving  it  in  or  out  until  the  field  is  clear, 
and  has  a  well  defined  line  passing  through  the  center. 
One  side  of  the  line  may  be  darker  than  the  other,  but  by 
turning  the  milled  head  which  operates  the  moveable 
quartz  plate  the  two  halves  of  the  field  may  be  made  to 
have  an  equal  intensity  of  light. 


E. 
Fig.  13. 

In  Fig.  13  R  shows  a  picture  of  the  field  when  the 
milled  head  must  be  turned  to  the  right  (the  thumb  of  the 
hand  moving  toward  the  lamp)  to  effect  neutrality,  L  a 
picture  when  it  must  be  turned  in  the  opposite  direction 
and  E  shows  the  field  when  neutral. 

When  the  vision  is  that  illustrated  in  E,  look  through 
the  reading  glass  K  (see  Fig.  12,)  and  read  the  scale.  The 
small  scale  appearing  above  is  called  the  "vernier,"  and 
its  zero  should  exactly  correspond  to  the  zero  of  the  larger 
scale  below.  If  they  are  not  in  line,  they  should  be  made 
to  coincide  by  turning  the  nipple,  provided  for  the  pur- 
pose. This  should  be  done  only  by  some  one  acquainted 
with  the  polariscope,  as  in  single  compensation  instru- 
ments this  screw  is  easily  mistaken  for  the  screw  in  con- 
nection with  the  analyzer. 


34 


INSTRUMENTS   FOR    ANALYSIS   AND   THEIR    USE. 


Now  fill  a  polarization  tube  with  a  properly  prepared 
solution  (see  next  paragraph,)  and  place  it  in  the  polar- 
iscope.  Make  the  observation  as  above,  bringing  the  two 
halves  of  the  field  of  vision  to  an  equal  shade.  Then  make 
the  reading.  Find  the  number  of  whole  degrees  the  zero 
of  the  scale  has  moved  from  the  zero  of  the  vernier.  In 
Fig.  14  it  is  29.  To  determine  the  tenths,  note  the  point 


10 

0 

. 

0 

1  1  1  1 

1  1  1  1 

1  1  1 

1  1  1  1 

•y 

111! 

1  1  1  1 

1  1  1  1 

1  1 

Ml! 

1  !  1 

Fig.  14. 

at  which  a  line  on  the  vernier  coincides  with  a  line  on  the 
scale.  In  this  illustration  it  is  at  4.  Therefore,  the  read- 
ing is  29.4,  and  the  solution  read  contains  29.4  per  cent, 
of  sugar. 

A  polariscope  fitted  with  the  double  compensators  and 
two  scales,  gives  four  checks  on  the  correctness  of  the 
reading.  The  upper  scale  and  the  milled  head  which 
moves  it  are  black.  The  lower  scale  is  red,  and  its  milled 
head  brass.  In  making  a  test,  set  the  red  scale  at  zero  and 
use  the  black  scale.  Then  remove  the  polarization  tube 
from  the  instrument  and  make  the  field  neutral  by  using 
the  brass  screw.  The  readings  of  the  two  scales  should 
correspond.  For  an  invert  reading,  set  the  black  scale  at 
zero  and  use  the  red  scale. 

(c)  Testing  a  Polariscope.— No  instrument  should  be 
used  unless  it  has  been  found  to  be  accurate.  The  exami- 
nation is  most  easily  made  by  means  of  the  control-tube  or 
quartz  plates.  The  control-tube  can  be  lengthened  or 


INSTRUMENTS    FOR    ANALYSIS   AND   THEIR   USE.          35 

shortened  and,  as  a  scale  is  attached  which  shows  the  length 
of  the  tube  in  millimeters,  the  reading  which  the  instrument 
ought  to  give  may  be  easily  calculated.  If  quartz  testing 
plates  are  used,  their  value  should  be  determined  by  check 
analyses,  e.g-.,  with  cc  "known  sugar"  solutions.  Table  III 
gives  the  number  of  gr.  of  chemically  pure  sugar  which 
must  be  made  up  to  100CC  to  give  any  desired  polariscope 
reading.  By  the  use  of  the  control-tube,  quartz  testing 
plates,  and  <c  known  sugar"  solutions,  it  may  easily  be  de- 
termined whether  the  instrument,  is  correct  for  readings  on 
all  points  of  the  scale.  Uneven  quartz  wedges  will  make 
a  polariscope  accurate  for  some  readings  and  inaccurate  for 
others. 

The  accuracy  of  the  zero  point  may  be  found  by  read- 
ing the  instrument  itself,  and  a  solution  of  chemically  pure 
sugar  may  be  used  for  the  100  mark.  Chemically  pure 
sugar  is  prepared  as  follows  : 

Wash  a  quantity  of  the  best  granulated  sugar  repeatedly  with 
an  85  per  cent,  alcohol.  Three  to  five  times  the  volume  of  sugar  is 
sufficient  alcohol  to  use.  After  washing,  dry  the  sugar  thoroughly 
at  100  degrees  Centigrade  and  keep  in  an  air-tight  jar.  26.048 
grammes  of  this  sugar  dissolved  in  100CC  of  water  at  17^  °C  should 
have  a  specific  gravity  of  I.IIII. 

In  the  laboratory,  a  polariscope  that  is  accurate  under 
normal  conditions  may  become  incorrect  through  the 
influence  of  heat  or  some  other  cause.  The  instrument 
should  be  thoroughly  examined  at  least  once  a  week,  and 
each  chemist  should  read  for  the  zero  point  at  least  twice  a 
day,  say  at  the  beginning  of  each  half-day.  These  exami- 
nations ought  to  be  sufficient  to  insure  its  accuracy. 

(d)  Tubes  and  Weights.— The  Schmidt  and  Haensch 
polariscopes  are  so  constructed  that  26.048gr  of  chemi- 


36          INSTRUMENTS   FOR   ANALYSIS   AND   THEIR    USE. 

cally  pure  sugar  dissolved  in  100CC  of  water  will  read  100° 
in  the  polariscope,  when  a  polarization  tube  200mm  long  is 
used,  in  sugar  analysis,  when  these  instruments  are  used, 
26.048§r  is  called  "normal  weight,"  13.024*r  "half  nor- 
mal weight,"  and  52.096*r  "double  normal  weight."  A 
polarization  tube  100mm  long  is  called  a  "half  tube,"  and 
one  400mm  long  a  "  double  tube,"  the  "normal"  tube  being 
200mm.  Any  one  of  these  weights  and  tubes  may  be  used 
in  analysis,  but  it  is  always  best  to  use  the  largest  weight  and 
longest  tube  practicable.  All  readings  must  be  figured  on 
a  basis  of  normal  weight  and  normal  tube,  hence  if  a 
shorter  tube  or  a  lower  weight  is  used,  the  reading  must  be 
multiplied,  and  if  a  larger  weight  or  a  longer  tube  is  used 
the  reading  must  be  divided.  In  case  of  an  error,  if  the 
reading  is  multiplied  the  error  is  multiplied,  and  if  the 
reading  is  divided  the  error  is  divided.  In  very  dark  solu- 
tions the  half  tube  must  sometimes  be  used,  and  when  there 
is  only  a  small  amount  obtainable  of  the  solution  to  be 
analyzed,  half  normal  weight  must  be  used.  In  general 
the  most  practical  combination  is  double  normal  weight  and 
normal  tube.  The  double  tube  cannot  be  used  accurately 
except  with  very  light  solutions.  All  readings  may  be 
figured  to  normal  by  the  following  table : 


length  of  Tube 
Used. 

Weight  Used. 

To  Make  Normal. 

100mm- 

13.024 

Multiply  by  4. 

100mm, 

26.048 

Multiply  by  2. 

100:nm. 

52.096 

Reading  shows 

per  cent,  sugar. 

200mm. 

13.024 

Multiply  by  2. 

200mm. 

26.048 

Reading  shows 

per  cent,  sugar. 

200mm. 

52.096 

Divide  by  2. 

400mm 

13024 

Reading  shows 

per  cent,  sugar. 

400mm. 

26.048 

Divide  by  2. 

400mm  . 

52.  OH  6 

Divide  bv  4. 

INSTRUMENTS   FOR   ANALYSIS   AND   THEIR   USE.          37 

The  continuous  polarization  tube  (Fig.  15)  may  be  used 
when  a  large  number  of  solutions  of  comparatively  the  same 
sugar  content  are  to  be  tested,  as  in  beet  analysis.  A 


Fig.  15. 

funnel  is  fitted  to  one  end  and  a  rubber  tube  is  attached  to 
the  other,  the  opposite  end  of  the  tube  being  in  a  bucket  on 
the  table  when  the  tube  is  in  the  instrument.  The  solu- 
tion to  be  read  is  poured  in  the  funnel,  the  surplus  fluid 
going  out  of  the  tube.  After  reading,  the  next  solution  is 
poured  in  the  funnel,  and  so  on.  The  use  of  this  tube 
saves  a  great  deal  of  time  in  beet  tests  and  the  results  are 
accurate. 

POINTERS : 

The  preparation  and  polarization  of  a  solution  should  be  made 
at  the  same  temperature. 

Readings  are  made  more  quickly  when  the  polariscope  is  cov- 
ered with  a  box,  or  is  in  a  place  darkened  by  curtains. 

The  lamp  should  be  about  200mm  from  the  end  of  the  polari- 


38          INSTRUMENTS   FOR   ANALYSIS   AND   THEIR   USE. 

scope  and  the  instrument  should  be  protected 
from  the  heat  by  a  wooden  partition  or  screen  ,„ 
with  an  opening  about  ^  of  an  inch  in  diam- 
eter for  the  light  to  pass  through.  (See  F  44.) 

When  gas  is  obtainable,  the  lamp  shown 
in  Fig.  16  is  a  good  form  to  use.  It  may  be 
raised  or  lowered  on  the  stand  A.  The 
shade  B  gives  a  concentrated  light.  The 
Students'  is  a  good  oil  lamp.  (See  F.  38.) 

Always  turn  the  polariscope  away  from  the 
light  when  you  have  finished  reading.  Heat 
affects  the  cement  holding  the  prisms. 

Polarization  tube  discs  (glasses)  sometimes  cause 
inaccurate  readings.  They  may  be  tested  by  putting 
them  in  polarization  tubes  and  reading  for  the  zero 
point. 

Do  not  screw  on  the  ends  of  the  polarization  tube 
too  tight.  The  compression  of  the  discs  may  make 
them  double  refracting,  and  the  reading  will  be  wrong-  Fig.  16. 

Discs  may  be  wiped  off  with  the  pocket  handkerchief.  It  is 
the  quickest  way  to  clean  them.  A  scrap  of  filter  paper  is  also 
good. 

Rinsing  the  tube  three  times  is  nearly  always  sufficient  to 
insure  its  cleanliness.  This,  of  course,  means  to  rinse  it  with  the 
solution  to  be  read. 

In  every  test  with  a  single  compensation  polariscope,  make 
three  readings  and  take  the  average.  Rest  the  eye  for  15  or  20  sec- 
onds after  each  reading. 

When  the  zero  point  in  an  instrument  is  .1  or  .2  wrong  it  is 
unnecessary  to  adjust  it,  but  a  correction  must  be  made  for  read- 
ings. If,  instead  of  the  polariscope  showing  zero,  it  shows  .2  then 
.2  should  be  subtracted  from  every  reading  of  solutions,  and  vice 
versa.  Thus,  if  the  reading  is  18.6,  the  correct  reading  would  be 
18.4,  because  the  polariscope  shows  .2  more  sugar  than  is  really 
contained,  and  if  the  zero  point  is  .2  to  the  left  then  18.6  would  be 
18.8,  for  the  polariscope  shows  .2  less  than  is  really  contained. 

Bach  analysist  doing  general  work  should  have  two  or  three 
polarization  tubes,  to  be  used  for  special  tests.  For  example,  a  tube 
for  only  pulp  and  waste  waters,  one  for  cosettes,  syrups,  etc.,  and 
one  for  high  tests,  such  as  sugars  and  massecuites. 


INSTRUMENTS   FOR   ANALYSIS    AND   THEIR    USE.  39 

8.  Scales. — Four  different  kinds  of  scales  are  neces- 
sary in  beet  sugar  analysis.  The  common  scale  with  plat- 
form and  scoop  is  used  for  weighing  beet  samples,  a 
druggists'  balance  is  most  convenient  for  weighing  lime 
cakes,  a  balance  having  a  carrying  capacity  of  300gr  and 
sensible  to  lmg  is  necessary  for  sugar  analysis  and  spe- 
cific gravity  determinations,  and  a  delicate  balance  with 
agate  bearings  made  for  a  charge  of  100gr  and  sensible  to 
l-20mg  is  used  for  finer  analytical  work.  These  scales 
are  shown  respectively  in  Figs.  26,  30,  24  and  41. 

To  test  the  sensibility  and  accuracy  of  a  balance,  first 
adjust  it  properly  by  its  regulating  screws.  The  smallest 
weight  the  balance  is  sensible  to  is  placed  on  one  scale  pan 
and  the  balance  must  turn  very  distinctly.  Each  pan  is 
then  charged  to  its  full  carrying  capacity  and  the  small 
weight  added  again.  The  balance  will  oscillate  more 
slowly  than  before,  but  should  turn  to  the  same  extent. 

Place  the  same  weight,  say  50gr,  on  each  scale  pan, 
and  if  necessary  adjust  the  scale  so  that  the  index  for  mark- 
ing oscillations  will  be  exactly  in  the  middle.  Interchange 
the  weights  and  the  balance  should  remain  in  equilibrium. 
Remove  the  weights  and  set  the  balance  in  slight  motion. 
It  must  resume  its  original  equilibrium.  Load  one  scale 
pan  and  repeated  weighings  of  it  should  give  same  result. 

The  regular  weights  used  for  analytical  purposes  and 
sugar  weights  (normal,  half  normal  and  double  normal) 
should  be  verified"  when  purchased,  but  if  taken  care  of 
properly  they  are  not  liable  to  either  lose  or  gain  in  weight, 
and  need  not  be  tested  unless  there  is  special  reason  to  be- 
lieve they  have  been  affected.  Scoops  constantly  lose  in 
weight  by  daily  use,  and  the  counterpoise  weights  must  be 


INSTRUMENTS    FOR    ANALYSIS    AND    THEIR    USE. 


repeatedly  filed  down.  If  any  weight  is  too  light,  un- 
screw the  plug  on  top  and  insert  tinfoil.  If  it  is  too 
heavy,  file  off  the  surplus  weight. 

POINTERS. 

Do  not  touch  weights  with  the  fingers. 

FRESBNIUS  says  :  "The  balance  ought  to  be  arrested  every  time 
any  change  is  contemplated,  such  as  removing  weights,  substituting 
one  weight  for  another,  etc.,  or  it  will  soon  get  spoiled." 

A  substance  when  hot  creates  a  draught  upward  and,  if  weighed, 
its  weight  is  less  than  it  would  be  at  normal  temperature. 

Weights  should  be  kept  in  a  box  away  from  the  fumes  of  acid, 
but  the  tarnishing  coat  which  forms  on  brass  weights  is  so  extrerm  ly 
thin  that  it  is  of  no  consequence. 

There  is  a  circular  spirit  level  on  every  good 
balance.  If  the  bubble  is  not  in  the  center,  ad- 
just the  scale  by  the  screws  underneath. 

Have  a  camel's  hair  brush  two  inches  wide 
for  dusting  the  wood-work  around  a  balance. 

9.  Other  Apparatus.  —  Water  and 
Lead  Bottles.  — The  siphon  bottle  shown  W 
in  Fig.  17,  is  used  for  water  and  lead. 
The  following  points  should  be  observed 
in  making  one  of  these  bottles  :  Use  a 
gallon  bottle,  ^  inch  glass  tubing,  and 
rubber  tubing  to  match ;  have  the  rubber 
tube  long  enough  so  that  when  the  bottle 
is  on  the  shelf  the  lower  end  of  the  tube 
will  be  on  a  level  with  the  eye  ;  have  the 
air-tube  bent  down  so  as  to  exclude  dust, 
make  the  nozzle  about  two  inches  long, 
and  for  rapid  work  the  point  should  not 
be  drawn  too  small ;  and  have  a  Mohr's 
pinch-cock  immediately  above  the  nozzle.  Fig.  17. 


INSTRUMENTS    FOR   ANALYSIS   AND   THEIR    USE. 


(£)  Acetic  Acid  Bottles  for  lime  cake  analysis  are  made 
as  above  described  but  smaller.     (See  F.  13.) 

(c)  Washing  Bottle.  —  This  is  shown  in  Fig.  18.  It 
is  a  bottle  of  about  750CC  to 
800CC  capacity,  and  the  neck 
is  wrapped  with  twine  to  pro- 
tect the  hand  when  hot  water  is 
used.  Heavy  glass  tubing  of  3-16 
iiich  inside  diameter  may  be  used. 
The  nozzle  is  drawn  to  a  fine  point, 
and  a  rubber  tube  is  used  to  con- 
nect the  siphon  tube  with  the  noz- 
zle so  that  it  may  be  turned  in  any 
direction.  The  air-tube  should  be 
on  a  plane  with  the  nozzle  as  the 
operator  can  better  direct  the 
stream. 


18' 


(aO  Burettes  for  Fehling's  Solution,  normal  acids,  etc., 
may  be  placed  in  a  burette  stand  like  that  shown  in  F.  20. 
The  cheapest  and  very  satisfactory 
burettes  are  Mohr's,  for  use  with 
pinch-cocks  shown  in  the  illustration. 
A  T-tube  connection  for  filling 
burettes  is  shown  in  Fig.  19.  The 
use  of  red  lead  or  chalk,  as  described 
in  3  makes  the  graduations  clearer. 
If  Erdmann's  floats  are  used  with 
burettes,  the  graduation  on  the 
burette  corresponding  to  the  line  on 
the  float  is  the  correct  reading.  If 
floats  are  not  used,  the  reading  is  at 
the  bottom  of  the  meniscus  (4). 


Fig.  19. 


42          INSTRUMENTS    FOR    ANALYSIS   AND   THEIR   USE. 


(X)  Thermometers  for  sugar  analysis  are 
preferably  those  with  large  enough  bulbs  so  that 
they  will  only  be  about  half  immersed  when 
placed  in  a  fluid.  (See  Fig.  20.)  They  may 
be  graduated  from  0°  to  130°  F.,  or  20°  to  about 
130°,  and  should  be  of  the  common 
kind,  that  do  not  register  too 
quickly,  as  the  reading  might 
change  during  the  time  the  instru- 
ment is  taken  from  the  fluid  to  be 
read. 


Fig.  20. 


(/;   Mohr's  Pinchcocks  — (fig. 

21)  are  the  most  handy  clamps  for 
Fig.  21.  water-bottles,  burettes,  etc.  They 

are  made  in  three  sizes,  the  middle 
size  being  the  one  most  often  used  in  sugar 
work. 

(g)  Kipp's  Apparatus  shown  in  Fig.  22  may 
be  used  for  the  generation  of  carbonic 
acid  i  n  experimenting  with  lime  and 

to  neutralize  alkaline  solutions.  Lime- 
stone is  placed  in  the  middle  bulb 
and  crude  muriatic  acid  is  poured  in  the 
safety  tube  at  the  top.  The  apparatus  may 
also  be  used  for  the  generation  of  hydrogen 
sulphide  and  other  gases  in  chemical 
analysis. 

(/O    Indicator  Bottles   may  be   either  a 
dropping  ftask  or  an  ether  bottle,  both  of 
which  are  described  in  4.     The  former  is 
preferable.     Phenol  is  considered  the  most 
Fig.  22.  suitable  indicator  for  sugar  work. 


OF  THE 

m  UNIVERSITY 
CHAPTER 
GENERAL  METHODS  OF  ANAU. 

10.  Introductory.  —  Nearly    all    sugar    analyses   are 
figured    for    "purity."      (See     19.)      In    exact    analysis 
the  "real  purity  "  is  obtained  by  weight,  but  in   analysis 
where  only  approximate  exactness  is  required,  the  "appar- 
ent purity  "  is  determined  by  some  method  which  combines 
the  greatest  accuracy  with  the  quickest  operation.     Three 
of  these  methods  are  given  in  the  following  paragraphs. 
All  are  theoretically  correct  and  it  is  a   matter  of  opinion 
which  is  the  most  practical  for  general  work.*     The  analy- 
sis by  pipette  is  distinctly  American,  as  is  also  the  gravi- 
meter    method,  while  the  volumetric   method   is   used   in 
Europe.     For  solutions  having  a  small  percentage  of  sugar, 
such  as  pulp  and  waste  waters,  there  can  be  no  doubt  but 
that  the  volumetric  method  is  the  best,  as  a  large  amount 
of  the   solution   is  necessary  in   order   to   secure   accurate 
results.      Natural  water  is  used  in  sugar  analysis,  but  it 
should  be  tested  to  see  that  it  has  no  optical  activity. 

The  beginner  is  advised  to  read  Chapter  I.  carefully  lo 
learn  the  manipulation  of  all  the  apparatus  used  in  analysis 
before  studying  this  chapter. 

1 1.  The  Preparation  of  the  Sample  for  analysis  varies 
with  the  different  substances,  and  is  given  for  each  one 
under  its  proper  paragraph. 

12.  Clarification. — After  the  solution  to  be  tested  is 
measured,  or  is  weighed  out  into  the  flask,  the  impurities 
must  be  precipitated  to  render  it  clear  and  colorless  enough 
for  polarization.     This  is  done  by  the  use  of  a  sub-acetate 

*  Nt)TE. — Solutions  having  a  brix  of  over  24  must  be  diluted,  in  order  to  make 
an  apparent  purity  test  by  the  methods  here  outlined. 


44  GENERAL    METHODS   OF   ANALYSIS. 

of  lead  solution.  The  amount  of  the  lead  to  use  varies 
with  the  color  and  impurity  of  the  solution  to  be  tested — 
but  no  more  than  is  necessary  should  be  used.  In  low- 
grade  syrups  5  to  7CC  is  often  necessary,  while  a  granulated 
sugar  solution  can  be  polarized  without  clarification.  Add 
a  few  drops  of  the  lead  solution,  and  rotate  the  flask 
gently  to  mix  the  contents.  Then  let  a  drop  flow  down 
the  neck  and  side  of  the  flask ;  if  this  drop  is  lost  upon  en- 
tering the  solution,  it  indicates  that  the  precipitation  is  not 
complete  and  that  more  lead  solution  must  be  added,  but  if 
it  can  be  traced  after  entering  the  solution  by  its  clear 
track  down  the  side  of  the  flask,  it  shows  that  the  clarifi- 
cation is  complete. 


The  U.  S.  Department  of  Internal  Revenue,  in  its  regu- 
lations* relative  to  the  bounty  on  domestic  sugar,  gives  the 
following  :  "  The  use  of  sub-acetate  of  lead  should,  in  all 
cases,  be  followed  by  the  addition  of  *  alumina  cream  ' 
(aluminic  hydrate  suspended  in  water),  (t)in  about  double 
the  volume  of  the  sub-acetate  solution  used,  for  the  purpose 
of  completing  the  clarification,  precipitating  excess  of  lead, 
and  facilitating  filtration.  In  many  cases  of  high  grade 
sugars,  especially  beet  sugars,  the  use  of  alumina  alone 
may  be  sufficient  for  clarification  without  the  previous 
addition  of  sub-acetate  of  lead." 

In  ordinary  work  it  is  not  generally  considered  neces- 
sary to  use  any  other  clarifying  agent  than  lead  acetate. 
The  precipitate  given  by  the  lead  solutions  causes  a  very 


*  U.  S.  Internal  Revenue,  Series  7  to  17,  Revised. 

t  See  paragraph  128  for  preparation  of  "Alumina  Cream/ 


GENERAL   METHODS    OF   ANALYSIS.  45 

slight  error  in  polarization,  on  account  of  its  volume.  In 
the  presence  of  this  precipitate  the  fluid  tested  is  not 
actually  diluted  up  to  100CC,  but  to  100CC,  minus  the  volume 
of  the  precipitate.  In  beets  this  error  is  about  .17  per 
cent.,  and  in  diffusion  juice,  .27  per  cent.,  while  in  green 
syrup  it  is  estimated  to  be  as  high  as  .63  per  cent.J  This 
refers  to  tests  made  by  the  volumetric  method. 

When  invert  sugar  is  present  a  serious  error  very  often 
result  by  the  formation  of  laevulosate  of  lead,  which  is  a 
salt  of  low  specific  rotary  power,  and  sometimes  the  left- 
hand  rotation  is  almost,  if  not  entirely,  destroyed.  (G  L,. 
SPENCER.)  The  addition  of  enough  acetic  acid  to  give  the 
solution  an  acid  reaction  will  prevent  this  error. 

13.  Filling  the  Flask. — After  the  addition  of  sufficient 
lead  solution,  the  flask  is  filled  to  the  proper  mark  and  is 
well  shaken,  the  thumb  being  placed  over  the  top  of  the 
flask  In  nearly  all  cases  the  solution  should  stand  for 
from  5  to  10  minutes  before  being  filtered.  When  it  is 
known  that  there  is  only  a  small  amount  of  sugar  con- 
tained this  is  unnecessary,  and  in  beet,  cossette,  and  diffu- 
sion juice  tests  it  allowed  to  stand  the  solution  soon  be- 
comes too  dark  to  polarize. 


14.  The  Volumetric  Method  of  analysis  is  used  in 
Europe  for  determining  all  "  apparent  purities,"  but  in  the 
United  States  it  is  generally  used  only  for  solutions  con- 
taining a  very  small  amount  of  sugar  such  as  pulp  and  waste 
waters.  A  flask  graduated  to  100  and  110CC  or  to  50  and 


J  See  Tucker's  Manual  of  Sugar  Analysis,  third  edition,  page  166. 


46  GENERAL   METHODS   OF   ANALYSIS. 

55CC  is  rinsed  with  the  solution  to  be  tested,  and  is  then 
filled  with  it  to  the  lower  mark  (50  or  100).  Add 
sufficient  lead  acetate  to  precipitate  the  impurities 
and  fill  to  the  higher  mark  (55  or  110)  with  water. 
Filter  and  polarize  a  part  of  the  filtrate  in  a  200mm 
tube.  The  reading  multiplied  by  *.286  was  formerly  taken 
to  show  the  percentage  of  sugar  in  the  solution,  but  this 
multiplication  is  now  divided  by  the  specific  gravity  as  the 
increase  in  density  lowers  the  specific  rotatory  power  of  the 
sugar. 

Table  V.  may  be  used  for  determining  the  per  cent, 
sugar  from  the  polariscope  reading.  For  example,  the 
brix  of  a  solution  is  16.5  and  the  temperature  correction 
.3,  making  the  corrected  brix  16.8,  and  the  polariscope 
reading  is  33.6.  By  referring  to  the  table  we  first  find  at 
the  top  of  the  page,  the  degree  brix  17.0  as  it  is  nearest  to 
16.8.  In  the  column  under  17  we  find  the  line  of  polar- 
iscope degree  33,  as  it  is  the  whole  degree  of  the  polari- 
scope reading  obtained,  and  the  percentage  of  sugar  given 
is  8.82.  The  tenths  obtained  is  6,  and  at  the  side  of  the 
table  under  "degree  brix  from  12.5  to  20.0,"  we  find  .6= 
.16.  Adding  .16  to  8.82  gives  8.98,  the  percentage  of 
sugar  in  the  solution  tested.  The  per  cent,  sugar  is  divided 
by  the  brix  and  multiplied  by  100  to  give  the  apparent 
purity,  8.98— 16  8  x  100  —  53  45,  apparent  purity. 


*  A  polariscope  is  made  for  26.048  gr.  of  a  solution  made  up  to  lOOcc  to  show 
the  percentage  of  sugar  it  contains,  and  if  a  solution  containing  26.048  percent, 
of  sugar  is  read  directly  in  the  polariscope,  the  instrument  will  show  100  per 
cent.  Hence  each  reading  of  1  shows  .26048  per  cent,  of  sugar.  When  a  solution 
is  diluted  10  per  cent,  to  allow  for  lead  acetate  (as  above,)  each  reading  of  1  will 
show  10  per  cent,  more  than  .26048  or  .286  iti  round  numbers. 


GENERAL   METHODS   OF   ANALYSIS.  47 

15.  The  Pipette  Test  is  made  as  follows:     Carefully 
take  the  brix  and  also  the  temperature  of  the   solution  to 
be  tested.     Fill  the  pipette  to  the  graduation  corresponding 
to  the  reading  of  the  brix.     (3.)t     Diop  the  solution  into 
a  100CC  flask  and  wash  the  pipette,  as  described  in  3.     Add 
enough  lead  acetate  to  the  flask  to  precipitate  all  impurities 
and  leave  a  clear  fluid  above.       Then  fill  to  the  mark  with 
water.     After  filtering,  fill  a  200mm  tube  with  a  portion  of 
the   filtrate,  and  polarize.      Divide  the  reading  by  two,  as 
the  pipette  contained  double  normal  weight.    The  per  cent, 
of  sugar  thus  obtained,  divided  by  the  brix,  with  the  tem- 
perature correction   and   multiplied  by    100,  will  give  the 
apparent  purity. 

16.  The  Gravimeter,  invented  by  W.   K.    Gird,  is   a 
mechanical  device  by   which  the  solution  is  measured  off 
and  placed  in  the  flask  by  the  operation  of  taking  the  dens- 
ity.    It  is  based  on  the   principle   that    a   substance   im- 
mersed  in   a  fluid  displaces  its   own   weight  of  the  fluid. 
The  following  explanation  of  the  apparatus  was  prepared 
for   "  Beet  Sugar  Analysis  "  by  the  inventor. 

"In  the  illustration  (Fig.  23)  A  represents  the  main 
tube,  to  hold  the  solution  under  treatment  ;  B,  overflow 
pipe  ;  C,  air  vent,  to  prevent  siphonage,  constructed  in 
funnel  form,  to  facilitate  cleaning;  D,  an  index  finger  point- 
ing to  the  saccharometer,  constructed  so  as  to  swing  cut 
of  the  way  when  necessary,  and  to  stand,  for  convenience 
of  reading,  say  five  graduations  above  the  surface  of  the 
fluid  ;  E,  saccharometer,  weighing  exactly  .26048gr.  and  F, 
point  of  discharge  into  the  flask  ;  G,  drip  funnel;  and  H  is 
cock  for  letting  out  the  fluid  from  A. 

t  Finding  the  per  cent,  sugar  is  done  by  weight,  hence  it  is  not  influenced 
by  temperature,  and  the  uncorrected  reading  of  the  brix  is  drawn  into  the 
pipette. 


48  GBNKRAL   METHODS    OF   ANALYSIS. 


Fig.  23. 


GENERAL   METHODS   OF    ANALYSIS.  49 

The  operator  closes  the  aperature  F  with  his  finger 
and  fills  the  main  tube  with  the  solution  until  it  shows  full 
at  C.  Skimming  off  the  foam  from  the  top  of  the  main 
tube,  he  removes  his  finger  and  permits  the  excess  to  escape 
to  the  last  drop,  which  must  be  removed.  This  will  leave 
the  tube  B  moistened  with  the  fluid  under  analysis  so  that 
the  condition  will  be  left  precisely  the  same  as  it  will  be 
after  the  delivery  of  the  discharge  hereafter  explained. 
There  can  be  no  loss  or  no  gain,  either  in  quantity  or 
quality.  Next,  place  a  100CC  flask  under  the  overflow  F 
and  insert  the  saccharometer  in  the  usual  manner,  Jetting 
it  go  down  slowly  until  it  floats  free.  The  fluid  will  come 
out  at  E  ;  bring  up  the  mouth  of  the  flask  so  as  to  catch 
the  last  drop.  The  fluid  in  the  flask  will  now  weigh 
exactly  e.  g.  26.048gr,  being  the  quantity  displaced  by  the 
saccharometer  having  that  weight.  Now,  bring  the  point 
D  to  the  index  on  the  saccharometer  and  note  the  reading, 
to  which  add  (10),  representing  the  height  of  the  finger 
above  the  surface." 

The  solution  in  the  flask  is  cleared  with  lead  acetate, 
filtered  and  the  filtrate  polarized  in  a  200mra  tube,  the  read- 
ing giving  the  direct  per  cent,  sugar.  In  taking  the  brix, 
note  the  temperature  on  the  thermometer  I,  and  divide  the 
per  cent,  sugar  by  the  corrected  brix  and  multiply  by  100 
to  find  the  apparent  purity. 

The  principal  source  of  error  in  using  the  gravimeter  is 
in  having  saccharometers  incorrect  in  weight.  Either 
normal  or  double  normal  weight  instruments  may  be  used, 
but  it  is  difficult  to  make  them  exact.  Another  error  to 
guard  against  is  allowing  the  saccharometer  to  sink  down 
too  far.  This  is  simply  a  matter  of  care,  and  can  be  easily 


GENERAL  METHODS  OF  ANALYSIS. 


avoided.  The  gravimeter  may  be  used  for  solutions  having 
a  medium  and  low  brix,  but  is  hardly  adapted  for  thick 
juices  and  syrups. 

1 7.  Analysis  by  Weight  is  usually  made  where  great 
accuracy  is  required,  and  sometimes  it  is  necessary  when 
only  a  sm  all 
amount  is  obtain- 
able of  the  sub- 
stance to  be  ana- 
lyzed. For  thin 
solutions  and  beets 
take  double  normal 
weight,  but  for 
thick  solutions  and 
massecuites  which 
are  not  so  easily 
dissolved,  use  nor- 
mal weight.  Half 
normal  weight  is  Fi£-  24- 

used  when  only  a  small  sample  is  to  be  had.  The  substance 
to  be  tested  is  carefully  weighed  in  a  tared  scoop  and  then 
washed  from  the  scoop  into  a  100CC  flask,  or  with  beets, 
into  the  special  beet  flask.  The  scoops  best  suited  for  this 
method  of  analysis  are  of  German  silver,  with  long  lips. 
(See  F.  18.)  After  the  substance  is  all  in  the  flask,  clear 
with  lead  acetate,  fill  to  the  mark,  filter  and  read.  In  solu- 
tions where  the  purity  by  weight  is  to  be  determined,  the 
specific  gravity  is  found  (2a)  and  the  per  cent,  sugar  is 
divided  by  the  degree  brix  which  equals  the  specific  grav- 
ity obtained.  This  is  multiplied  by  100.  In  the  analysis 
of  massecuites,  and  sometimes  of  solutions,  the  dry  sub- 
stance is  found  (2c),  the  division  of  the  per  cent,  sugar  by 


GENERAL   METHODS   OF   ANALYSIS.  51 

the  dry  substance,  and  multiplying  by  100,  giving  the  real 
purity.  Fig.  24  will  show  the  kind  and  quality  of  balance 
suited  for  weighings  in  sugar  analysis. 

Examples  : 

Per  cent.  Sugar  found  by  weight,  —  75.1. 
Per  cent.  Dry  Substance,  —  85.3. 

75.1  -f-  85.3  x  100=88.0+,  the  real  purity. 
Per  cent.  Sugar  found  by  weight  —  50.0. 
Specific  gravity,  1.4375  or  83.2  Brix. 

50  o  -:—  83.2  x  100  =  60.09  or  60.1,  purity  by  weight. 

18.  NonWNormal  Analysis. — It  rarely,  yet  sometimes 
happens  that  some  other  weight  than  normal  or  half-normal 
weight  must  be  taken  for  polarization.  In  this  case  the 
substance  is  carefully  weighed  out,  dissolved  and  made  up 
to  100CC,  with  the  addition  of  lead  acetate,  and  polarized  in 
a  200mm  tube,  the  per  cent,  of  sugar  being  calculated 
according  to  the  formula 

P  x  26.048. 

w 
In  which  P  represents  the  polarization  and  W  the  weight 

used. 

Example  : 

A  sample  of  11  gr.  of  a  massecuite  is  weighed  out  and  polarized, 
the  polarization  being  36.8.  According  to  the  formula 

36.8  x  26.048  =  958.57  =  87.14,  per  cent,  sugar  in  sample. 

11  11 

19.  Quotient  of  Purity  is  the  percentage  of  sugar  con- 
tained in  the  total  solids.  It  is  always  spoken  of  simply  as 
"purity."  The  only  exact  method  for  determining  the 
quotient  of  purity  is  described  in  17,  and  is  called  the 
"  real  purity."  The  "purity  by  weight"  described  in  the 
same  paragraph  is  considered  in  some  factories  to  be  suffi- 
ciently exact  for  syrup  analysis.  The  "  apparent  purity" 
(14,  15  and  16,)  is  used  for  nearly  all  analyses  in  the 


52          GENERAL  METHODS  OF  ANALYSIS. 

chemical  control  of  the  daily  run  of  factories.  It  is  not 
exact,  as  the  Brix  saccharometer  is  used  for  determining 
the  total  solids,  and  this  instrument  is  based  on  a  scale 
which  assumes  all  the  solids  to  be  pure  sugar.  The 
presence  of  other  solids  in  an  impure  solution  makes  the 
brix  reading  too  high  and  the  purity  consequently  too 
low.  It  is  not  affected  alike  b}^  all  impurities*,  hence  its 
inaccuracy  varies,  but  the  purity  found  is  usually  fioin  2  to 
4°  lower  than  the  real  purity.  After  obtaining  the  per 
cent,  sugar  and  the  degree  Brix,  the  apparent  purity  can  be 
determined  by  the  use  of  Table  VI. 

20.  The  Value  Coefficient  is  used  by  some  European 
factories  in  the  purchase  ot  beets,  the  price  paid  being  ac- 
cording to  the  coefficient.     It  is  also  used  to  some  extent  in 
determining   the  value   of  juices   in    factory   work.      The 

formula  is 

Sucrose  x  purity 

— ITJTT —      — =  value  coefficient. 

21.  The    Saline   Quotient   is    considered    by   French 
chemists  to  show  how   near  a  substance  is   exhausted   of 
crystallizable  sugar.     The  supeiintendents  of  French  fac- 
tories pay  more  attention  to  it  than  to  purity  ;  in  fact,  they 
practically  neglect  figuring  on  purity  bases  (E.  E.    BRYS- 
SELBOUT).      Some  chemists  consider  it  of  especial  value  to 
new  factories  in  the  study  of  beets  and  j  uices.  The  formula  is : 

Per  cent  Sucrose  -j—  per  cent.  Ash  =  Saline  Quotient. 
For   the   analysis  of   ash    see    34b.      Determine    the 
sugar  by  weight. 

22.  The  Rendement  is  a  formula  tor  determining  the 
amount  of  refined  sugar  that  can  be  made  from  a  substance 
or  solution.     It  is  : 

Per  cent.  Sucrose — (per  cent  ash  x  5)  =  per  cent,  refined  sugar. 
*  See  Tucker's  Manual  of  Su^  ar  Analysis,  3rd  edition,  page  112. 


Apparatus  in   M. 

1. — Apparatus  for  testing  CO2  in  gas. 

2. — Kiehle  machine  for  beets  and  cossettes. 

3. — Meat  chopper  for  cossettes. 

4. — Power  grinder  for  beets. 

5. — Hand  grinder  for  beets. 

6.— Beet  block  and  knife. 

7. — Beet  box  for  beet  samples. 

8. — Press  for  obtaining  juice  from'beets  or|cossettes. 

9. — Press  for  pulp. 
10. — Hand  grinder  for  pulp. 
11. — The  same  in  parts. 


CHAPTER  III. 


INDIVIDUAL  SUGAR  ANALYSES. 

23.  (a)  Beets.  —  A  bushel  basket  full  of  beets  is 
taken  as  a  sample  from  each  wagon,  or  samples  from  two  or 
three  wagon  loads  (from  the  same 
farmer)  may  be  tared  and  analyzed  as 
one  sample.  The  sample  is  dumped  on 
-S  the  floor  in  one  pile  and  mixed.  From 
this  pile  the  "  tarer  "  takes  a  sample 
weighing  50  pounds,  using  a  shovel  to 
take  the  beets  from  the  floor.  The  beets 
are  cleaned  thoroughly  in  a  washing 
machine  and  are  then  tared  by  cutting 
off  the  tops  squarely  at  the  point  where 
the  first  leaves  have  grown  (see  Fig.  25.) 
All  hairs  are  scraped  off,  and  all  roots 
that  are  ^  of  an  inch,  or  les^,  in  diameter,  are  removed. 
The  sample  is  then  reweighed 
and  the  difference  between  its 
weight  and  50  pounds,  multi- 
plied by  2,  gives  the  per  cent, 
of  tare.  Twenty  average  beets 
are  then  taken  from  the  sample 
to  test  in  the  laboratory.  They 
are  weighed  (preferably  with 
metric  weights)  and  the  average  weight  is  recorded.  The 
common  platform  scales  with  scoop  are  used  in  weighing. 
Each  beet  is  then  cut  perpendicularly  as  equally  as  possi- 
ble, into  four  parts,  and  one  of  the  quarter  sections  of  each 
beet  is  taken  to  make  up  the  sample  for  analyzing.  The 


Fig.  26. 


56  INDIVIDUAL   SUGAR    ANALYSES. 

beet  block  and  knife  used  for  this  purpose  are  shown  in  m6. 
There  are  a  number  of  machines  constructed  for  cutting 
out  certain  parts  of  the  beets  which  are  considered  to  give 
the  best  average  sample,  but  the  above  method  is  very 
practical,  being  both  rapid  and  accurate. 

(b)  The  sample  is  grated  up  similarly  to  horse  radish  and 
the  juice  from  the  pulp  thus  obtained  is  squeezed  through  a 
cloth  by  pressure.  The  grater  and  press  generally  used  are 
shown  in  m4  and  m8.  The  cylinder  of  the  grater  should 
make  about  500  revolutions  a  minute.  After  being  grated 
up  the  sample  is  in  a  box  (m4)  and  is  dumped  upon  a 
clean,  dry  cloth.  The  edges  of  the  cloth  are  then  folded 
together,  placed  in  the  press  and  pressure  applied.  The 
juice  flowing  out  should  be  received  in  a  bucket  which  is 
clean  and  dry  inside.  All  the  juice  possible  should  be 
squeezed  out.  From  the  bucket  a  portion  of  the  juice  is 
poured  into  a  cylinder  very  carefully,  so  as  to  make  as  little 
foam  as  possible,  and  is  allowed  to  stand  as  long  as  may  be 
necessary  (from  10  to  20  minutes),  to  let  all  the  bubbles  of 
air  come  to  the  top.  Skim  off  the  foam  with  a  spoon  and 
analyze  by  either  the  volumetric  method  or  pipette  test. 
The  use  of  too  little  or  too  much  lead  will  give  a  dark  solu- 
tion after  filtering.  The  continuous  polarization  tube 
described  in  7d  is  of  especial  value  in  beet  work  when  a 
large  number  of  samples  are  to  be  tested,  and  is  as  accurate 
as  the  ordinary  tube  when  used  properly.  The  per  cent, 
sugar  is  figured  into  apparent  purity.  On  account  of  the 
fibre  in  the  beet  the  per  cent,  of  sugar  is  less  than  is  found 
by  analysis  to  be  in  the  juice.  The  sugar  in  beets  is  usually 
considered  to  be  95  per  cent,  of  the  sugar  in  juice,  but  in 
dry  years  it  is  often  taken  as  94  per  cent.  For  determining 
the  amount  of  fibre  in  beets  see  (f)  of  this  paragraph.  The 
analysis  of  the  beet  may  be  recorded  in  this  way : 


INDIVIDUAL   SUGAR    ANALYSES.  57 

Average  weight 348  gr. 

Brix 19.1. 

Per  cent.  Sugar  in  juice 15.4. 

Per  cent.  Sugar  in  beet  (95  percent)  14.6. 
Purity  80.6. 

(c)  Water  Digest. — A  flask  is  especially  made  for  this 
test,  being  graduated  to  201. 4CC  and  221. 4CC.  It  is  the  same 
as  a  200CC  plus  20  per  cent,  flask  with  1.4CC  allowed  for  the 
fibre  in  the  beet.  Grind  the  beets  to  be  tested  as  fine  as 
possible.  Weigh  out  double  normal  weight  and  wash  into 
flask  using  an  amount  of  water  which  will  bring  the  con- 
tents of  the  flask  up  to  a  volume  of  about  180CC.  Add  5CC 
of  lead  acetate  and  heat  in  a  water  bath  at  75°C.  A  stick 
about  eight  inches  long  and  slightly  thicker  than  a  lead 
pencil  may  be  placed  in  the  flask  to  use  in  pushing  down 
any  foam  that  may  rise.  The  length  of  time  required  for 
heating  varies  according  to  the  way  the  beets  are  ground. 
MR.  E.  TURCK  and  the  author  in  a  series  of  experiments 
found  that  the  beets  ground  with  a  horse  radish  grater  had 
to  be  heated  for  45  minutes  to  give  accurate  results,  while 
beets  crushed  to  an  exceedingly  fine  pulp  in  a  specially 
made  machine  (the  Kiehle)  could  be  thoroughly  diffused 
in  15  minutes.  After  heating  sufficiently,  cool  to  17>^0C 
and  make  up  to  the  201.4CC  mark.  Very  often  in  this  test 
it  will  be  found  necessary  to  fill  to  Hie  upper  mark,  in 
which  case  deduct  10  per  cent,  of  the  reading.  When  the 
lower  mark  is  used,  the  reading  in  a  200mm  tube  shows 
the  per  cent,  of  sugar  in  the  beet. 

This  test  may  be  made  as  above  in  a  100CC  flask,  but  the 
foam  which  usually  forms  make  the  operation  more  diffi- 
cult than  with  the  larger  flask.  It  is  also  slightly  less 
accurate  as  no  provision  is  made  for  the^fifetfei^the  beet. 


58  INDIVIDUAL   SUGAR    ANALYSES. 

(d)  The  Alcohol  Extraction  is  considered  by  many  chem- 
ists to  be  the  only  exact  method  for  determining  the  per- 
centage of  sugar  in  beets.  The  apparatus  for  this  analysis 
is  shown  in  Fig.  27.  A  wide-mouthed  200CC  flask  contain- 
ing 150CC  of  ^-per  cent,  alcohol  is  placed  in  a  water  bath, 
which  is  well  covered.  The  top  of  the  flask  is  connected 
by  a  rubber  stopper  with  an  extraction  apparatus,  prefer- 
ably the  Sickel-Soxhlet  which  is  shown  in  the  illustration. 
Into  the  cylinder  A  of  the  apparatus  is  placed  52.096gr  of 
the  sample  which  is  prepared  in  the  same  way  as  the  sam- 
ple for  the  water  digestion.  The  cylinder  should  be  of 
such  size  and  so  made  that  the  substance  to  be  tested  does 
not  come  higher  than  the  upper  turn  of  the  siphon  D- 
The  sample  may  be  washed  into  the  cylinder  with  alcohol, 
and  more  alcohol  added  until  the  fluid  comes  up  in  D  to  the 
upper  turn.  A  L,iebig  condensor  is  now  attached  to  the 
upper  part  of  the  extraction  apparatus  by  a  rubber  stopper 
and  some  suitable  arrangement  made  to  keep  a  flow  of  cold 
water  through  the  condensor.  This  can  be  done  by  siphon- 
age,  as  shown  in  the  illustration.  Heat  is  now  applied  and 
the  alcohol  distilled.  The  gas  passes  up  through  the  tube 
C  to  the  condensor,  where  it  is  condensed,  and  falls  into  the 
tube  A,  going  back  to  the  flask  through  the  siphon  D. 
This  distillation  and  redistillation  is  kept  up  until  the  fluid 
coming  back  through  the  siphon  is  colorless.  The  length 
of  the  operation  varies,  but  is  usually  about  two  hours,  and 
the  fluid  in  the  apparatus  goes  back  about  four  times. 
When  finished,  the  flask  is  separated  from  the  apparatus 
and  cooled.  About  4CC  of  lead  acetate  are  then  added  and 
the  contents  made  up  to  the  mark  with  alcohol.  Shake  well, 
filter  with  precautions  against  evaporation,  and  polarize, 
the  reading  being  the  per  cent,  sugar  in  beet. 


Fig.  27. 


6o 


INDIVIDUAL   SUGAR    ANALYSES. 


(e)  Alcohol    Digest.  —This   is  made    the    same  as  the 
water 'digestion,  alcohol  being  used  instead  of  water.    Care 

must  be  taken  to 
prevent  evapo- 
ration of  the  al- 
cohol. It  may 
be  avoided  by 
slanting  the 
ftask  in  the 
water  bath  and 
connecting  to 
the  top  of  the 
flask  by  a  rub- 
ber stopper,  a 
straight  glass 
tube  lcm  in  di- 
ameter  and 
about  65cmlong, 
the  tube  acting 
as  a  condenser 
(Fig.  28.) 

(/)  The  Fi- 
bre in  Beet  is 
usually  deter- 
mined indirectly 
by  a  compari- 
son of  the  tests 
of  sugar  in 
beet  b  y  the 
alcohol  extrac- 
tion, and  of  sugar  in  juice  by  the  volumetric  or  pip- 
ette method.  A  large  sample  is  ground  up  and  well 
mixed  and  is  then  divided,  a  smaller  portion  being  used 


Fig.  28. 


INDIVIDUAL,   SUGAR    ANALYSES.  6 1 

for  the  alcohol  digest  and  the  larger  portion  for  the  juice 
test,  the  juice  being  pressed  out  and  tested  as  in  B,  dividing 
the  per  cent,  sugar  found  to  be  in  the  beet  by  the  per  cent, 
sugar  in  the  juice,  the  ratio  of  the  sugar  in  beet  to  sugar  in 
juice  is  found.  This  percentage  subtracted  from  100  will 
give  the  percentage  of  fibre. 

Example  : 

Per  cent,  sugar  by  alcohol  digest  =  15.2. 
Per  cent,  sugar  found  in  juice  =  16.1. 
15.2  — '-  16.1  =  94.4  per  cent. 
100— 94.4  =  5.6,  the  per  cent,  of  fibre. 

A  direct  determination  of  the  fibre  may  be  made  by 
taking  the  residue  remaining  in  the  cylinder  A  (Fig.  20,) 
after  the  alcohol  extraction*,  and  drying  first  at  90°C  and 
finally  at  100°C  to  constant  weight.  The  weight  of  the 
residue  divided  by  52.096  and  multiplied  by  100  will  give 
the  per  cent,  of  fiber.  This  is  Scheibler's  method. 

Or)  Beets  in  the  Field. — When  a  beet  is  young  the 
weight  of  the  leaves  is  proportionately  much  greater  than 
that  of  the  root,  but  as  the  plant  grows  the  difference  be- 
comes gradually  less  until  at  maturity  the  condition  is  re- 
versed and  the  root  weighs  much  more  than  the  leaves. 
The  knowledge  of  the  relation  between  the  roots  and  the 
leaves  is  of  value  to  the  agriculturist  in  many  ways,  one  in- 
dication being  that  an  increase  in  the  proportion  of  roots 
is  an  increase  in  the  contents  of  sugar.  Hence,  in  testing 
beets  before  maturity,  a  record  should  always  be  made  of 
the  weight  of  the  roots  and  of  the  tops,  the  relation  of  the 
roots  to  the  total  weight  being  calculated  by  dividing  the 


*  To  be  sure  that  all  soluble  matter  is  extracted,  the  residue  should  be  washed 
with  ether. 


62  INDIVIDUAL   SUGAR    ANALYSES. 

former  by  the  latter.  The  leaves  are  cut  off  squarely  at  the 
point  where  the  first  leaves  have  grown,  as  shown  in  Fig 
25. 

Example  : 

Four  beets  are  tested,  the  leaves  of  which  weigh  2324sr  and  the 
roots  18288r. 

2324gr  —  4  =  581gr,  average  weight  of  leaves. 
1828gf  -, —  4  =  457gr,  average  weight  of  roots. 

457      457 

• =  .44  or  44  per  cent.,  proportion  of  roots  to 

(581  +  457)       1038 

total  weight.  In  recording  the  analysis,  the  average  weight  of  the 
leaves  and  the  roots  and  the  proportion  of  roots  to  total  weight  are 
written  first,  the  results  of  analysis  (as  in  .5)  following. 

24.  Cossettes. — The  diffuser    takes  a  small   sample 
(handful)  of  cossettes  from  each  cell  as  the  battery  is  being 
filled,  placing  it  in   a  large  can  with  a  closely  fitting  top. 
This  can  when  full  contains  the  laboratory  sample.*    After 
mixing  thoroughly,  the  sample,  or  a  portion  of  it,  is  chopped 
to  a  fine  pulp  with  a  sausage-meat  cutter  (m3)  or  some 
similar  machine.      After  being  reduced  to  fine   particles 
the  sample  is  again  thoroughly  mixed  and   a  small  portion 
is  taken  for  the  determination  of  the  per  cent,  sugar  in  the 
cossettes.     This  is  done  either  by  the  water  digest  (23c)  or 
the  alcohol  extraction  (23d).     The  juice  is  squeezed  out  of 
the  remaining  portion   and  is  analyzed   the  same   as  beet 
juice   (23b).     In  laboratories  possessing  the    Kiehle  ma- 
chine (m2,)  the  portion  for  direct  sugar  in  cossettes  can 
be  ground  up  separately  in  this  machine.     In  many  fac- 
tories this  latter  analysis  is  the  only  one  made  of  cossettes. 

25.  Wet  Pulp. — The  sample  is  taken   as  the  pulp 
comes  from  the  diffusion  battery.     It  should  be  well-mixed, 

*  In  hot  countries  the  can  of  samples  should  be  emptied  in  at  least  two  hours 
after  the  first  sample  is  put  in,  on  account  of  the  danger  of  fermentation. 


INDIVIDUAL    SUGAR    ANALYSES. 


not  all  being  taken  from  the  same  place,  and  should  be 
picked  up  with  the  hand  so  that  a  surplus  of  water  is 
avoided .  Large  chips  of  beets  are  sometimes  mixed  with 
the  pulp,  and  care  should  be  taken  that  none  of  these  are 
in  the  sample.  The  sample  is  mixed  thoroughly  and  is 
ground  up  in  a  hand  sausage  machine  (m1O.)  after 
which  the  liquid  is  pressed  out 
through  a  cloth.  The  usual  press  is 
shown  in  m9  and  in  Fig.  29.  Both 
the  grinder  and  the  press  should  beat 
some  distance  from  the  machine  used 
in  preparing  beet  and  cossette  sam- 
ples. The  analysis  of  pulp  is  very 
important,  and  the  slightest  addition 
of  sugar  from  a  foreign  source  would 
cause  an  error.  The  liquid  pressed 
out  as  above  is  analyzed  by  the  volu- 
metric method,  a  100-1 10CC  flask  being 
used.  Table  IV.  is  prepared  especially  for  pulp  analysis 
and  it  should  be  tacked  up  in  a  convenient  place  in  the 
laboratory. 

26.  Pressed  Pulp.— Take  a  somewhat  larger  sample 
than   is  used  in  the  wet  pulp  analysis    described  in   the 
above  paragraph  and  proceed  in  the  same  way. 

27.  Waste    Water    from    the    diffusion    battery  can 
usually   be   tested   by    filtering   a   small   quantity   into   a 
beaker    and    reading    in     the    polariscope.       When   read 
directly  in  this  way  multiply  the  reading  by  .26   (see  14.) 
Sometimes  the   addition  of  a  small  pinch  of  common  salt 
will  make  a  cleaier  filtrate.      If  the  water  is  too  dark  to  be 
read  without  clearing  with  lead  acetate,  make  the  analysis 
by  the  volumetric  method  and  use  Table  IV.  for  determin- 


Fig.  29. 


64  INDIVIDUAL,   SUGAR    ANALYSES. 

ing  the  per  cent,  sugar.  The  disposal  of  waste  water 
varies  so  greatly  in  different  factories  that  no  directions  can 
be  given  for  taking  the  sample. 

28.  Diffusion  Juice* — From  each  measuring  tank  full 
of  juice  50CC  are  taken  and  placed  in  a  bucket  to  make  up 
the  sample  for  analysis.  In  warm  countries  there  is  danger 
of  fermentation  if  the  sample  stands  too  long.  The  addi- 
tion of  definite  volumes  of  lead  acetate,  or  common  salt,  or 
carbolic  acid,  are  sometimes  recommended  to  prevent  this 
fermentation.  None  of  these  are  satisfactory,  as  no  accu- 
rate correction  can  be  made,  either  for  the  influence  of  the 
foreign  matter  on  the  brix  or  on  the  polariscope  reading. 
The  best  method  is  to  empty  the  sample  and  make  the 
analysis  before  it  has  had  time  to  ferment.  The  juice  will 
keep  longer  if  the  bucket  is  uncovered.  Analyze  by 
either  the  pipette  or  volumetric  method  and  make  purity. 
The  same  precaution  as  in  beet  analysis  must  be  observed 
in  regard  to  the  use  of  too  little  or  too  much  lead. 

29.     Lime  Cakes* — There   are  two  methods  employed 
for  determining  the  per  cent,  of  sugar  remaining  in  lime 

cakes,  the  water 
test  and  the  acetic 
acid  test.  Samples 
are  usually  taken 
from  several  filter 
presses  and  mixed 
together  as  one 
sample.  When  the 
cake  is  hard  and 

30.  firm  a  sample  taken 

from  any  part  of  the  press  is  an  average  of  the  whole  press. 
Theoretically  in  center-feed  presses  there  is  more  sugar 


INDIVIDUAL   SUGAR    ANALYSES.  65 

contained  in  the  outer  edges  of  the  cake  than  nearer  the 
center,  and  the  opposite  is  theoretically  true  in  side-feed 
presses.  When  a  sample  is  taken  it  should  be  kept  covered 
until  analyzed  to  prevent  evaporation  of  the  water.  Fig.  30 
is  the  most  convenient  scale  for  weighing. 


(a)  Water  Test.— Weigh  out  25^r*  of  the  cake  taking 
a  small  portion  from  each  sample.     Put  in  a  shallow  porce- 
lain mortar    (F  12  or  Fig.  31,) 

add  about  15CC  of  hot  water  and 

mix  thoroughly.      Transfer  to  a 

100CC  flask,  washing  the  mortar 

with  about  75CC  of  water.     Add 

2  or  3CC  of  lead  acetate  and  heat 

slowly   to   about    95°C.      Cool, 

make    up    to    100CC,    filter    and  FiS  81- 

polarize.       The   reading   is  the 

percent,  sugar  contained. 

(b)  Acid  Test.— Weigh  out  25*r   as  above.     Transfer 
to  a  porcelain  mortar  and  add  enough  water  to  make  a  thick 
paste,  using  a  pestle  to  thoroughly  dissolve  the  lumps.    Neu- 
tralize with  acetic  acid,  using  phenol  as  an  indicator.     Add 
the  acid  carefully  to  prevent  foaming  over.     Pour  into   a 


•  If  normal  weight  were  made  up  to  lOOcc  the  dilution  would  be  insufficient 
on  account  of  the  insoluble  matter  in  the  lime-cakes.  The  amount  of  the  insol- 
uble matter  varies  with  the  condition  of  the  cake,  but  for  normal  weight  of  good 
hard  cake  is  taken  as  4cc.  Hence  the  dilution  is  up  to  only  96cc  instead  of  lOOcc. 
By  taking  25gr  (96  per  cent,  of  normal  weight)  an  allowance  is  made  for  the  in- 
soluble matter  and  precipitate.  It  could  also  be  accomplished  by  making 
normal  weight  up  to  104. 2cc. 


66  INDIVIDUAL   SUGAR   ANALYSES. 

100CC  flask,  add  a  few  cc  of  lead  acetate  and  make  up  to  the 
mark  with  water.  Then  filter  and  read,  the  reading  being 
the  per  cent,  sugar  contained. 

30.  Thin  Juices  of  all  kinds  may  be  tested  by  either 
the  volumetric  or  the  pipette  method.      In  factories  using 
the  Steffens'  process  there  is  a  hydrate  juice  which  contains 
a  great  deal  of  lime.      It  should   be  neutralized  with  car- 
bonic acid  gas  and  filtered  before  being  analyzed.      If  gas 
used  in  the  factory  is  employed  for  neutralizing,  it  should 
pass  through  some  condensing  chamber  which  will  free  it 
from   water.     The  juice    may    be   neutralized   in   a   glass 
cylinder,  phenol  being  used  as  an  indicator.     In  analyzing 
thin  juices,  after  the  addition  of  lead  acetate,  make  up  to 
the  mark,  shake  well  and  let  stand  about  five  minutes. 

31.  Sweet  Waters  are  tested  in  the  same  way  as  thin 
juices,  and  when  distinctly  alkaline  are  neutralized  by  car- 
bonic acid  gas  and  filtered  before  analyzing,  as  in  3O.  The 
volumetric   method  is  generally  employed  in  analysis   of 
sweet  waters  on   account   of  their  low   sugar   content,    a 
100-1 10CC  flask  being  used. 

32.  Thick  Juice  is  usually  tested  for  its  apparent  pur- 
ity and  purity  by  weight.     For  the  apparent  purity  take  a 
large  tumbler  half  full  of  the  juice  and  dilute  by  the  addi- 
tion of  water.      When  in  thorough  solution  transfer  to  a 
glass  cylinder  and  make  the  pipette  test,  or  analyze  by  vol- 
ume.     For  the   purity  by  weight  use  normal  weight  and 
transfer  to  a  100CC  flask.       It  is  best  to  mix  the  juice  thor- 
oughly with  water  in  the  scoop,  as  it  can  be  poured  more 
easily  into  the  flask  and   can  be  cleared  more  readily  with 
lead  acetate.      After  precipitating  the  impurities,  fill  to  the 
mark,  shake  well,  and  let  stand  about  10  minutes.      Divide 


INDIVIDUAL   SUGAR   ANALYSES.  67 

the  polariscope  reading  by  the  brix  obtained  by  pycnometer 
method  to  find  the  purity  by  weight. 

33.  Syrups. — Samples  may  be  taken  from  a  tank  or 
from  the  trough  leading  away  from  the  centrifugal 
machines,  but  should  never  be  taken  directly  from  the 
spout  of  a  machine,  except  in  very  special  cases.  In  case 
the  latter  is  necessary  care  should  be  taken  to  get  a  fair 
sample.  There  are  often  drops  of  almost  pure  sugar  on  the 
end  of  the  spout ;  avoid  them.  Mix  every  sample  thor- 
oughly with  the  hand  before  it  is  analyzed.  No  instru- 
ment is  equal  to  the  fingers  in  mixing  the  tiny  grains  of 
sugar  with  the  rest  of  the  sample. 

Syrups  are  tested  for  apparent  purity  or  for  purity  by 
weight  and  real  purity.  For  apparent  purity  use  a  large 
tumbler  ;  fill  about  one-third  full  with  the  syrup  and  dilute 
with  water.  Dissolve  the  syrup  as  much  as  possible  by 
stirring.  I,et  stand  for  a  minute,  pour  off  the  fluid  at  the 
top  into  a  glass  cylinder  and  add  more  water  to  the  tumb- 
ler. Completely  dissolve  the  remainder  of  the  syrup  and 
transfer  to  the  cylinder,  washing  the  tumbler  perfectly  clean 
and  adding  the  washings  to  the  cylinder.  In  this  opera- 
tion care  should  be  taken  to  not  spill  any  of  the  solution 
from  the  time  the  syrup  is  put  in  the  tumbler  until  the  solu- 
tion has  been  well  shaken  in  the  cylinder.  The  solution  should 
brix  from  about  18  to  20.  Apparent  purity  may  be  made 
volumetrically  or  by  pipette.  For  purity  by  weight  all  the 
air  must  be  driven  from  the  sample  to  be  analyzed.  This 
is  effected  most  easily  by  the  apparatus  shown  in  F  26.  A 
glass  funnel  (sugar  size)  with  a  stick  fitting  water-tight  in 
the  stem  is  placed  in  a  common  tin  can  half  filled  with  water. 
The  stem  of  the  funnel  should  be  about  half  an  inch  above 
the  top  of  the  water.  Fill  the  funnel  nearly  full  of  the 


68  INDIVIDUAL   SUGAR   ANALYSES. 

syrup  to  be  analyzed  and  place  the  can  over  a  burner  or 
stove,  letting  the  water  heat  without  boiling  until  all  the  air 
in  the  syrup  has  been  driven  to  the  top.  A  funnel  with  a 
ground  glass  stop  cock  may  also  be  used.  Cool  to  normal 
temperature.  The  funnel  can  now  be  placed  in  the  ring  of 
an  iron  lamp-stand  and  the  syrup  will  flow  from  the  stem 
by  raising  the  stick.  Discard  the  first  5CC  as  it  may  con- 
tain a  small  amount  of  water  from  the  bottom  of  the  stick 
and  the  stem  of  the  funnel.  Let  that  which  follows  flow 
into  a  pycnometer,  and  when  a  sufficient  amount  has  been 
obtained  stop  the  flow  by  shutting  down  the  stick.  De- 
termine the  brix  by  comparison  with  the  sp.  g.  obtained  by 
the  pycnometer.  After  the  specific  gravity  has  been  taken 
the  syrup  in  the  pycnometer  can  be  used  for  weighing  to 
obtain  the  per  cent,  sugar.  Weigh  out  normal  weight, 
dilute  with  water  and  make  a  solution  in  the  scoop  ;  trans- 
fer to  a  100CC  flask,  washing  out  the  scoop  thoroughly. 
After  clearing  with  lead  acetate,  fill  to  the  mark,  and 
let  stand  for  about  ten  minutes.  For  the  real  purity  de- 
termine the  dry  substance,  as  in  2c,  and  make  the  sugar  by 
weight  as  above  dividing  the  per  cent,  sugar  by  the  per 
cent,  dry  substance. 

34.  (a)  Massecuites  and  Sugars  are  tested  for  appar- 
ent purity  and  real  purity.  In  either  case  take  the  sample 
in  a  small  pan  and  mix  thoroughly  with  the  hand,  being 
careful  to  crush  all  the  lumps.  The  "  tryer"  is  used  when 
possible  in  taking  samples.  This  instrument  resembles  the 
half  of  an  inch  steel  pipe  cut  longitudinally  and  sharpened 
at  the  end.  Insert  the  "  tryer  "  in  the  massecuite  or  sugar 
to  be  sampled,  rotate  it  completely,  and  withdraw.  In  cold 
weather  sample  cans  brought  in  should  be  allowed  to  attain 
the  temperature  of  the  room  (WIECHMANN).  For  the 


INDIVIDUAL   SUGAR   ANALYSES.  69 

apparent  purity  a  solution  must  be  made  in  the  same  way 
as  syrups.  Dissolve  every  grain  of  sugar  in  the  tumbler 
before  transferring  to  the  cylinder.  Massecuite  dissolves 
very  much  more  readily  in  hot  than  in  cold  water  and  in 
laboratories  where  ice  is  obtainable  the  quickest  method  is 
to  dissolve  the  sample  in  boiling  water  and  then  cool  to 
normal  temperature  with  ice.  This  is  particularly  valuable 
in  testing  samples  taken  from  the  vacuum  pan  to  see  if  the 
strike  is  ready  to  be  dropped.  Make  the  apparent  purity 
by  volumetric  method  or  pipette  test.  For  the  real  purity 
make  the  dry  substance  (2c)  and  determine  the  sugar  by 
weight.  Use  normal  weight  and  dissolve  as  much  as  possi- 
ble in  the  scoop  with  hot  water.  Pour  the  fluid,  but  no 
grains  of  sugar,  into  a  100CC  flask  and  add  more  warm 
water  to  the  scoop.  Dissolve  the  remaining  grains  and 
wash  into  the  flask.  A  glass  rod  flattened  out  at  one  end 
should  be  used  in  effecting  this  solution.  Cool  to  normal 
temperature,  clear  with  lead  acetate  and  make  up  to  the 
mark.  Shake  well  and  let  stand  several  minutes  (about  6 
or  8.)  Filter  and  read,  dividing  the  reading  by  the  per 
cent,  of  dry  substance  to  find  the  real  purity. 

(£)  The  Full  Analysis  of  massecuites  usually  comprises 
the  folowing  : 

Apparent  purity. 

Real  purity. 

Per  cent,  sugar. 

Per  cent,  water. 

Percent,  mineral  matter  (ash.) 

Per  cent,  organic  matter. 

The  first  three  are  found  according  to  the  above  para- 
graph, and  the  water  is  100 — the  dry  substance.  To  find 
the  ash  weigh  about  3gr  in  a  tared  platinum  dish  and  add 
about  20  drops  of  sulphuric  acid.  This  is  done  to  make 


70  INDIVIDUAL   SUGAR    ANALYSES. 

the  massecuite  yield  sulphate  salts  instead  of  carbon  salts 
as  the  latter  burn  away  and  the  former  do  not.  Burn  the 
massecuite  until  it  gives  a  white  ash.  Heat  gradually  at 
first  to  prevent  the  substance  from  rising  suddenly  and 
going  over  the  sides,  but  as  soon  as  the  water  has  been 
driven  off,  burn  over  an  exceedingly  hot  flame.  After 
burning,  cool  in  a  dessicator  and  weigh.  The  weight  of 
the  ash  divided  by  the  weight  of  the  massecuite  used  will 
give  the  per  cent,  of  the  ash.  The  addition  of  the  sulphuric 
acid  causes  an  error,  making  the  ash  weigh  more  than  it 
would  if  the  natural  carbon  salts  were  present.  This  error 
is  generally  accepted  to  be  10  per  cent,  and  is  so  figured. 

Example  : 

Weight  of  dish  and  massecuite 18.615  gr. 

Weight  of  dish    15.597  gr. 

Weight  of  massecuite  used 3.018  gr. 

Weight  of  ash  and  dish 15.763  gr. 

Weight  of  dish 15.597  gr. 

Weight  of  ash 166  gr. 

Ten  per  cent,  for  sulphuric  acid  error 017  gr. 

Correct  weight  of  ash 149  gr. 

.149  — r-  3.018  =  .049  =  4.9  per  cent,  of  ash. 

The  organic  matter  of  a  massecuite  is  100  less  the  sum 
of  the  per  cent,  sugar,  the  per  cent,  water  and  the  per  cent, 
ash. 

Example  : 

Total  in  massecuite 100.00  per  cent. 

Sugar 80.6  per  cent. 

Water 9.45 

Ash..  .  4.9  "  94.95 


Organic  matter , 5.05 


•INDIVIDUAL   SUGAR   ANALYSES.  71 

The  following  are  two  results  obtained   from  average 
pans  in  two  American  factories  : 

Apparent  purity  . .    85.3  82.9 

Real  purity 88.9  85.4 

Per  cent,  sugar 80.5  78.2 

Per  cent,  water 9.05  8  5 

Per  cent,  ash 4.5  6.6 

Per  cent,  organic  matter 5.95  6.7 


CHAPTER  IV. 
LIME,  ALKALINITIE8  AND  SATURATION  GAS. 

35.  (a)  Lime  is  analyzed  for  its  percentage  of  CaO. 
Weigh  out  one  gr.  of  a  finely  powdered  average  sample, 
transfer  to  a  porcelain  dish  and  neutralize  with  a  normal 
acid.  Either  Nitric,  Sulphuric  or  Hydrochloric  acid  may 
be  used  in  a  normal  solution,  but  the  latter  has  been  gener- 
ally adopted  by  the  American  beet  sugar  factories.  Take 
the  acid  from  a  burette  graduated  to  1-10  of  a  cubic  centi- 
meter. Use  a  few  drops  of  phenol  as  an  indicator  and  add 
the  acid  slowly  until  the  red  color  is  gone.  Note  the  read- 
ing of  the  burette  before  the  test  is  begun  and  after  the 
powder  has  been  completely  neutralized.  The  difference 
between  the  two  readings  gives  the  number  of  cc  of  acid 
necessary  to  effect  neutralization.  Multiply  this  number 
by  .028*  to  find  the  per  cent,  of  CaO  in  the  lime.  Table 
VII.  saves  the  operation  of  multiplication, 

Example : 

Reading  of  burette  before  neutralizing 35.6 

Reading  of  burette  at  beginning 8.9 

Number  of  cc  of  acid  used 26.7 

26  7  x  .028  =  .7476  =  74.76,  the  per  cent.  CaO  in  the  lime. 

*One  cc  of  a  normal  acid  neutralizes  .028?r  of  CaO.  To  illustrate,  the  action  of 
normal  HC1  will  be  described  :  In  neutralizing  the  lime  the  chlorine  in  the  acid 
combines  with  the  calcium  in  the  lime  to  make  calcium  chloride,  and  the  hydro- 
gen in  the  acid  combines  with  the  oxygen  in  the  lime  to  make  water.  Two  parts 
of  acid  must  be  used.  The  formula  is  : 

CaO  -r-  2HC1  =  CaCl2  4-  H2O. 

The  atomic  weight  of  CaO  is  55.87  CCa  =  39  91  and  O  =  15.96)  and  the  atomic 
weight  of  2HC1  is  72.74  (2H  =  2  and  2C1  =  70.74.)  Therefore,  it  takes  72.74  parts 
by  weight  of  HCl  to  combine  with  55.87  parts  of  CaO.  In  normal  acid  there  are 
36.37  parts  of  HCl  in  1,000,  or  .03(537  gr  in  Ice.  As  HCl  combines  with  CaO  in  the 
proportion  of  72.74  to  55  87  to  find  how  much  CaO  Ice  of  normal  acid  will  neutral- 
ize, we  have  this  equation. 

72.74  :  55.87  ::  .3637  gr  :  x. 

xis  .028gr. 

Therefore,  as  in  the  example,  if  it  takes  26.7cc  of  acid  to  combine  with  the 
CaO  in  Igr  of  lime,  multiplying  by  .028  gives  the  weight  of  CaO  which  has  com- 
bined with  the  acid.  In  this  case  it  is  .7476gr,  which  is  74.76  per  cent  of  the  Igr 
of  lime  used.  The  action  of  normal  sulphuric  acid  and  normal  nitric  acid  may 
be  figured  out  in  a  similar  manner. 


LIME,    ALKAUNITIES   AND   SATURATION   GAS.  73 

H.  RIECKES  has  proposed  a  test  for  finding  the  "availa- 
ble lime  "  or  lime  that  will  go  into  solution  with  sugar,  the 
test  being  particularly  applicable  to  the  Steffens'  process. 
It  is  made  by  weighing  out  a  certain  amount  and  dissolving 
with  water  and  sugar  solution.  The  amount  used  is  pref- 
erably lgr  of  lime  for  every  100^  of  water  and  sugar  solu- 
tion. Weigh,  for  example,  3gr  of  a  finely  powdered 
average  sample,  and  dissolve  as  much  as  possible  in  the 
scoop,  adding  sugar  solution  to  assist  the  operation.  No 
prescribed  amount  of  sugar  solution  is  necessary  but  about 
80  or  90CC  of  a  solution  of  50  brix  should  be  used  in  a  300CC 
test.  As  fast  as  any  appreciable  amount  is  dissolved,  pour 
into  a  300CC  flask,  and  repeat  this  until  all  the  lime  possible 
has  been  dissolved  ;  then  wash  the  remaining  particles  into 
the  flask.  Fill  to  the  mark  with  water  and  shake  well. 
Filter  100CC  and  neutralize  with  normal  acid,  using  phenol 
as  an  indicator.  Multiply  the  number  of  cc  of  acid  used  by 
.028,  as  in  the  above  paragraph,  to  find  the  percentage  of 
"available  lime."  The  results  from  this  test  have  not 
proved  to  be  reliable  thus  far,  often  being  from  5  to  10  per 
cent,  less  than  determinations  of  the  same  samples  by  direct 
titration  of  the  powder.  However,  the  test  has  a  certain 
value  in  Steffens'  work.  It  should  always  be  made  at  as 
low  a  temperature  as  possible,  and  always  at  the  same  tem- 
perature with  sufficient  sugar  solution.  For  testing  CaO 
in  saccharate  the  results  are  good. 

(&}  Milk  of  Lime  is  tested  only  for  CaO  and  density. 
The  CaO  is  found  by  neutralizing  lgr  with  normal  acid  as  in 
(a).  Shake  well  and  find  the  density  with  a  Brix  or  a 
Beaume  hydrometer. 

(f)  The  Slacking  Tests  of  lime  are  g^iven  in  If  39. 


74 


LIME,    AI«KAUNITIES   AND   SATURATION   GAS. 


71 


36.  Alkalinities. — In  beet  sugar  making  the  alkalinity 
of  juices  is  nearly  always  figured  as  lime,  although  it  is 
partly  ammonia,  and  sodium  and  potassium  compounds.  It 
is  usual  in  testing  alkalinities  to  have  a  special  acid  of 
which  lcc  will  neutralize  .0020^  of  lime,  so  that  if  20CC  of  a 
juice  is  used  every  cc  of  acid  necessary  to  neutralize  it  ,/^ 
will  show  1-100  of  1  per  cent,  alkalinity.  The  special  acid 
is  made  by  adding  570CC  of  a  normal  acid  to  7430CC  of  water. 
To  explain,  take  the  special  Hydrochloric  acid  as  an  ex- 
ample. Every  cc  of  this  acid  contains  .00259*r  of  HC1,  and 
as  it  combines  with  lime  in  the  propor- 
tion of  72.74  to  55.87  each  cc  will  neu- 
tralize .0020*r  of  lime  (see  35a  ). 
Therefore,  when  20ccof  a  juice  is  taken 
every  cc  of  acid  combines  with  .0001gr  of 
lime  in  each  cc  of  juice,  and  the  number 
of  cc  of  acid  used  show,  the  number  of 
hundredths  of  1  per  cent,  lime  in  the  sam- 
ple. If,  for  example,  20CC  of  a  juice  is  neu- 
tralized by  5CC  of  acid,  it  has  an  alkalinity 
of  5-100  of  1  per  cent.  This  is  usually 
written  .05  and  is  called  an  alkalinity  of 
5.  In  analyzing  measure  off  20CC  of  the 
sample  (a  tin  cup — F  36 — holding  20CC 
may  be  used  for  this,}  and  transfer  to  a 
porcelain  dish.  Use  phenol  as  an  indi- 
cator and  neutralize  by  the  addition  of 
the  special  acid  described  above.  A 
burette  graduated  to  1-10  of  a  cc  should 
be  used  for  measuring  the  acid.  There 
are  several  forms  of  apparatus  for  filling  the  burettes  used 
in  alkalinity  determinations,  one  of  which  is  shown  in  F 
35  and  another  in  Fjg.  32.  The  burette  is  usually  of  10CC 


Fig.  32. 


I.IME,    ALKAL1NITIES 


75 


fT 
"S 


capacity,  and  the  apparatus  has  a  siphon  arrangement  by 
which  the  burette  is  always  filled  exactly  to  the  zero  mark. 
A  form  of  apparatus  which  can  be  easily 
made  in  any  laboratory  and  which  is 
preferred  by  many  chemists  is  shown  in 
Fig.  33. 

The  juices  sampled  for  alkalinities 
are  usually  taken  from  a  filter  press  after 
the  first  carbonation,  a  press  after  the 
second  carbonation,  a  Daneck  or  me- 
chanical filter  after  the  sulphuring  pro- 
cess, the  last  effect  in  the  evaporation, 
and  a  filter  after  treatment  of  thick  juice. 
A  4-oz.  bottle  with  a  wooden  handle 
attached  (F  14)  is  convenient  for  taking 
the  samples.  They  are  transferred  to 
test-tubes  in  a  -rack,  as  shown  in  F  5. 
Each  test-tube  should  be  first  rinsed 
with  the  juice  sampled.  The  sample 
from  a  filter  press  should  be  taken  when 
the  press  is  running  at  full  force,  and 
not  when  it  is  either  first  opened  or 
nearly  filled. 


-  33' 


37.  CO2  in  Saturation  Gas.—  Carbonic  acid  is  readily 
absorbed  by  water  containing  either  caustic  soda  or  caustic 
potassium,  and  it  is  usual  in  laboratories  to  have  an  appa- 
ratus constructed  on  this  principle  for  testing  the  per  cent. 
of  CO2  in  saturation  gas.  A  form  of  this  apparatus  is 
shown  in  ml.  There  are  others  of  different  construction, 
but  so  made  that  100CC  of  water  are  displaced  by  the  gas  to 
be  tested,  the  gas  then  being  forced  thiough  a  reservoir 
filled  with  a  solution  of  caustic  soda.  The  gas  which 


76  LIME,    AI^KALINITIES   AND   SATURATION    GAS. 

passes  through  meets  a  tube  bearing  a  scale  divided  in  cubic 
centimeters  and  containing  100CC  of  water.  As  much  of 
this  water  is  displaced  as  there  are  cc  of  gas 
passing  through  the  reservoir.  The  amount  of 
water  remaining  in  the  tube  is  of  the  same  volume 
as  the  gas  which  was  combined  with  the  caustic 
soda,  hence  the  number  of  cc  remaining  shows 
the  percentage  of  CO2  in  the  gas. 

As  a  control  for  the  apparatus,  tests  should  be 
made  at  least  once  every  day  with  a  burette,  as 
follows :  Use  a  graduated  100CC  burette  with  a 
ground  glass  stop-cock  (Fig.  34).  Attach  it  to  a  rub- 
ber tube  connected  with  the  gas  pipe,  leaving  the 
open  end  in  cold  water.  Let  the  gas  pass 
through  the  burette  for  two  or  three  minutes,  then 
close  the  stop-cock  and  disconnect  the  rubber 
tube.  Raise  the  burette  until  the  zero  mark  is 
even  with  the  top  of  the  water  and  open  the 
stop-cock  just  long  enough  to  allow  the  water  to 
come  up  to  the  mark.  There  are  now  exactly 
100CC  of  gas  in  the  burette.  Insert  a  piece  of 
caustic  soda  (stick)  about  half  an  inch  long,  in 
the  open  end,  keeping  it  under  water.  Then  close 
this  end  with  the  thumb  or  index  finger  and  turn 
the  burette  upside  down  several  times,  letting  the 
soda  go  from  one  end  to  the  other.  Replace  the 
end  of  the  burette  in  water  and  by  taking  away 
the  finger,  water  will  rise  in  the  burette  to  take  the 
place  of  CO2  that  has  been  absorbed  by  the  caustic 
soda.  Repeat  the  above  operation  until  the  water 
ceases  to  rise  in  the  burette.  The  number  of  cc  of 
water  now  in  the  burette  will  show  the  percentage 
of  carbonic  acid  absorbed,  which  is  the  percentage  Fig.  34. 


LIME,    ALKAUNITIES   AND   SATURATION   GAS.  77 

of  CO2  in  the  gas  tested.  In  determining  the  amount  of 
water  in  the  burette  it  is  best  to  place  the  instrument 
deeply  enough  in  water  so  that  the  surface  of  the  water 
in  the  vessel  used  is  even  with  the  water  in  the  burette. 
This  prevents  the  weight  of  water  in  the  burette  from 
affecting  its  reading. 


CHAPTER  V. 
8TEFFEN&  PROCESS  ANALYSES. 

38.  (a)  Saccharate  of  Lime  is  of  two  kinds,   hot  and 
cold,  and  each  is  tested  for  sugar,  purity  and  CaO.     To  de- 
termine the  sugar,  weigh  out  I3.024gr.     Neutralize  in  the 
scoop  with  acetic  acid,  using  phenol  as  an  indicator.     Dis- 
solve the  saccharate  thoroughly  and   pour  the  contents  of 
the  scoop  into  a  100CC  flask.       Cool  to  normal  temperature, 
add  sufficient  lead  acetate,  and  make  up  to  the  mark  with 
water.     Filter  and  read  in  the  polariscope,  multiplying  the 
reading  by  two  to  find  the  per  cent,  sugar. 

(&)  To  Find  the  Purity  of  a  saccharate,  mix  the  sample 
with  water.  Use  about  1  kilo,  of  saccharate  and  dilute  to 
about  15  or  20  brix.  Neutralize  with  carbonic  acid 
gas  and  filter.  Evaporate  the  filtrate  to  30  or  40  brix  and 
filter  again.  Find  the  brix  by  pycnometer  and  determine 
the  sugar  by  weight,  using  26.048gr.  Divide  the  sugar  by 
the  brix  for  the  purity.  If  the  purity  of  a  solution  that 
has  a  high  alkalinity  is  made  without  neutralizing,  multiply 
the  alkalinity  by  3  and  subtract  from  the  brix.  However, 
nearly  every  chemist  prefers  to  have  the  solution  neutral. 

(c)  CaO  in  Saccharate  is  found  according  to  the  Rieckes' 
method  for  "available  CaO  "  in  lime  (35a).  For  the  cold 
saccharate  use  3gr  in  300CC  of  water  and  sugar  solution,  but 
as  the  hot  saccharate  dissolves  much  more  readily  4  or  52r 
of  it  may  be  used  in  300CC.  In  the  latter  case  if  5gr  are 
used  the  result  must  be  divided  by  1.666,  for  there  are  that 
many  gr  of  saccharale  in  the  100CC  used  for  the  test. 

39.  Lime  Powder  is  tested  for  CaO  and  grit,  and  occa- 
sionally  a   slacking   test   is    made.       The    CaO   is   found 


STEFFENS'    PROCESS   ANALYSES.  79 

according  to  35a-  The  grit  is  the  lime  that  will  not 
pass  through  the  sieves  used  in  the  process.  These  sieves 
are  usually  of  120  mesh,  but  whatever  size  is  used  must  be 
taken  for  the  laboratory  test.  Weigh  out  20*r  of  the  pow- 
der and  transfer  to  a  perfectly  clean  sieve.  Sift  out  as  much 
as  possible,  being  careful  that  none  is  lost  over  the  top. 
Weigh  that  remaining  and  multiply  by  5  to  determine  the 
percent,  of  grit.  This  is  the  same  as  dividing  by  20  and 
multiplying  by  100,  which  is  the  theoretically  correct  way. 

Example : 

Weight  of  lime  used— 20.0  gr. 
Weight  remaining  in  sieve — 6.5  gr. 
6.5  -i-  20  =  .325.  .325  x  100  =  32.5  per  cent.  grit. 

or 
6.5  x  5  =  32.5  per  cent.  grit. 

The  slacking  test  of  BAUR  and  PORTIUS  is  made  as  fol- 
lows :  Weigh  out  20gr  of  the  powder  and  transfer  to  a 
beaker.  Fill  a  100CC  flask  to  the  mark  with  water  and  note 
its  temperature.  Quickly  pour  the  water  over  the  lime  in 
the  beaker  and  stir  with  a  centigrade  thermometer.  Take 
the  temperature  15  seconds  after  starting,  again  in  15 
seconds,  and  then  in  30  seconds,  noting  it  at  the  end  of  each 
minute  thereafter  until  the  temperature  begins  to  go  down. 


Example  : 
Temp,  at  start  

..18 

After    8  min  , 

35 

After  15  sec  

.  .19 

ii        9     "    . 

36 

"     30  "    . 

21 

"      10     *'  . 

37 

"       1  min. 

23 

"      11     " 

37  V* 

u        2    " 

255^ 

I  (             J->          C  < 

38 

"        3    "     . 

27  y> 

<c      13     |C    . 

38^ 

"        4    "    . 

29 

"      14     "    . 

39 

"       5    "    . 

31 

"      15     "    . 

39 

"        6    "    

"       16     "... 

38^ 

7    "    . 

..34 

"      17     "    . 

..38 

80  STEFFENS'    PROCESS   ANALYSES. 

The  object  of  the  slacking  test  is  to  see  how  long  it 
takes  the  lime  to  slack  after  the  addition  of  water.  A  so- 
lution of  molasses  is  substituted  for  the  water  when  it  is 
desired  to  learn  the  length  of  time  required  for  slacking  in 
the  coolers,  and  the  test  is  carried  out  the  same  as  with 
water.  The  syrup  solution  should  be  of  the  same  density 
as  that  regularly  used  in  the  StefTens'  process. 

40.  O)    Waste  Waters. — Cold  Waste    Water  is  tested 
for  density  and  sugar.     It  is  not  necessary  to  figure  out  the 
purity.     The  sample  is  put  in  a  small  test-tube  with  a  foot 
(1)  and  the  density  taken  with  the  5-9  brix  spindle  de- 
scribed in  2b.     A  correction  is  made  for  temperature  and 
is   usually  a   subtractive   one.       Half   normal    weight    is 
weighed  out  or  if  there  is  sufficient  fluid,  normal  weight  is 
taken,  and  is  washed  from   the  scoop  into  a   100CC   flask. 
Two  or  three  drops  of  phenol  are  added  and  neutralization 
is  effected  with  acetic  acid.     Use  only  enough  acid  to  make 
the  sample  neutral,  or  very  slightly  acid,  and  if  by   acci- 
dent too  much  is  added,  use  enough  sodium  carbonate  solu- 
tion to  bring  the  fluid   back  to  nearly  the   neutral  point. 
Clear  with  lead  acetate  if  necessary,  make  up  to  the  mark, 
filter  and  polarize.       If  half  normal  weight  is  used,  multi- 
ply the  reading  by  2. 

(£)  Hot  Waste  Water  may  be  made  by  the  pipette 
method  or  by  weight,  using  double  normal  weight.  In 
either  case  neutralize  with  acetic  acid,  as  in  the  above  par- 
agraph. Only  the  brix  and  per  cent,  sugar  are  recorded. 

41.  Molasses  Saccharate  is  usually   tested  only  for 
CaO,  which  is  found  by  neutralizing  10CC  with  a  normal 
acid.     Multiply  the  number  of  cc  of  acid  used  by  10  and  by 
028  for  the  per  cent. 


STEFFENS'    PROCESS   ANALYSES.  8 1 

42.  Molasses     Solution. — The  purity    is     made    by 
pipette  or  volumetrically.     If  alkaline,  neutralize  as  in  3O, 
filter,  and  make  the  purity  of  the  filtrate. 

43.  Saccharate    Milk    is  tested  for  per   cent,   sugar, 
density,  and  CaO.     The  sugar  is  found  according  to  38a, 
the  density  is  taken  with  a  brix  spindle,  and  the  CaO  is 
found  by  neutralizing  10CC  with  normal  acid,  as  in  41. 


OF  THB 

UNIVERSITY 


CHAPTER  VI. 
INVERT  SUGAR  AND  RAFFINOSE*. 

44.  The  Correct  Percentage  of  Sucrose  cannot  be  de- 
termined by  means  of  the  polariscope  when  any  other  sugar 
is   present,   such  as   raffinose,    dextrose  or   laevulose,    and 
whenever  the    presence   of   any  of  these  is  suspected,    an 
analysis  must  be  made  by  the  inversion  method  given  be- 
low.      If   the   polarization   before   and   after    inversion  is 
equal,  only  sucrose  is  present,  but  if  it  is  either  higher  or 
lower  after  inversion  than  it  was   before,  other  sugars  are 
contained.     If  higher,  test  for  invert  sugar,  and  if  lower, 
test  for  raffinose.     The  other  sugars  need  not  be  considered 
in   beet  work,  dextrose  or  laevulose,  when  present  being 
combined  as  invert  sugar. 

To  invert  the  substance  to  be  analyzed  weigh  out  half 
normal  weight  and  transfer  to  a  100CC  flask,  washing  out 
the  scoop  with  about  75CC  of  water.  After  complete  disso- 
lution add  with  a  pipette  5CC  of  hydrochloric  acid  of  1.188 
sp.  g.  (at  15°C).  Put  the  flask  immediately  into  a  water 
bath  heated  to  70°,  and  leave  for  exactly  10  minutes,  mov- 
ing occasionally.  During  this  time  the  water  must  be  kept 
at  a  temperature  of  from  67°  to  70°.  At  the  expiration  of 
the  ten  minutes  cool  the  fluid  quickly  to  20°  by  setting  the 
flask  in  cold  water.  Then  fill  to  the  100CC  mark  with  water, 
shake  well  and  filter.  Clearing  by  lead  acetate  is  not  ad- 
missable,  as  it  effects  the  turning  of  invert  sugar  considera- 
bly. If  the  solution  is  dark  add  about  half  a  gramme  of 
bone  dust  to  the  flask  before  filtering. 

45.  Sucrose  in  the  Presence  of  Invert  Sugar.  —  Po- 
larize the  substance  in  the  usual  way,  using  a  polarization 

*  TT1T  45  and  46  adapted  from  Fruhling  and  Schulz. 


INVERT   SUGAR   AND   RAFFINOSE.  83 

tube  having  a  water  jacket  and  introduced  thermometer,* 
(F  42)  noting  the  temperature  at  which  the  polarization  is 
made.  Then  polarize  the  substance  after  inversion,  as 
above  described,  at  the  same  temperature  as  the  original 
substance  was  polarized.  The  polarization,  after  inversion, 
must  be  multiplied  by  2,  as  only  half  normal  weight  is 
used.  From  both  polarization  figures,  by  means  of  a 
formula,  is  found  the  percentage  of  sucrose  in  the  sample 
tested.  This  formula  expresses  only  the  optical  action  of 
the  sucrose,  as  the  inversion  does  not  change  either  dex- 
trose or  invert  sugar.  It  has  been  determined  that  a  pure 
cane  sugar  solution  which  polarizes  100°  at  0°C  in  the 
200mm  tube  of  the  apparatus  with  Ventzke's  scale  (13.024*r 
to  100CC),  revolves — 42.66,  so  that  the  entire  diminishing  of 
revolution  (at  0°C)  amounts  to  142.66°.  If  the  observation 
is  not  made  at  0°C,  but  at  a  higher  temperature,  there  oc- 
curs, owing  to  a  peculiar  property  of  the  invert  sugar,  a 
corresponding  lessening  of  revolution,  a  diminishing  of  0.5° 
for  1°C  increase  in  temperature.  Upon  this  observation  is 
based  the  above-mentioned  formula,  named  after  Clerget. 
L,et  S  represent  the  whole  diminishing  of  revolution  before 
and  after  inversion,  T  the  temperature  (in  Centigrade  de- 
grees), which  the  inverted  solution  shows  at  the  polariza- 
tion, and  Z,  the  true  contents  of  cane  sugar,  can  be  found 
according  to  the  following  formula  : 

-  100  x  S 


142. (56— (.5  x  T) 

Example  I :  A  sample  of  syrup  polarizes  before  inver- 
sion 14.8,  and  after  inversion  12.7.  The  latter  polariza- 
tion must  be  doubled  on  account  of  using  half-normal 

*  This  thermometer  should  be  graduated  in  1-10  degrees,  Centigrade. 


84 


INVERT   SUGAR   AND   RAFFINOSE. 


weight  so  that  the  entire  diminishing  of  revolution  S  is 
14.8  +  (2  x  12.7)  =  40.2.  The  temperature  at  both  polari- 
zations was  19°.  Therefore, 

100  x  40.2  4020 


z  =. 


30.2 


142.66— (.5x19;       133.16 

Example  II :  A  mixture  of  cane  sugar  and  starch 
syrup  polarizes  +  71.4  before  inversion,  and  after  inversion 
-f  8.4.  Doubling  the  latter  quality,  the  diminishing  of  rev- 
clution  S  is  71.4— 16.8  =54.6.  The  temperature  is  18°. 
Therefore, 


100  x  54.6 


5460 


40.85 


142.66— (.5  x  18)       133.66 

Using  Table  A,  the  percentage  of  cane  sugar  can  be 
found  by  multiplying  the  diminishing  of  revolution  by  the 
factor  corresponding  to  the  temperature  at  which  the  test 
was  made. 

TABLE  A. 


Temp.  C. 

Factor. 

Temp.  C. 

Factor. 

Temp.  C. 

Factor. 

10° 

0.7257 

17o 

0.7454 

24o 

0.7653 

11 

0  .  7291 

18 

0.7482 

25 

0  .  7683 

12 

0.7317 

19 

0  .  7510 

26 

0.7712 

13 

0  .  7344 

20 

0.7538 

27 

0  .  7742 

14 

0.7371 

21 

0  .  7567 

28 

0.7772 

IS 

0.7397 

22 

0.7595 

29 

0  .  7802 

16 

0  .  7426 

23 

0.7624 

30 

0  .  7833 

The  use  of  the  table  may  be  illustrated  by  the  two  ex- 
amples given  above. 

In  Example  I.  the  total  diminishing  of  revolution  is  40.2 
and  the  temperature  is  19°.  Therefore,  40.2  x  .7510  =  30.19 
or  30.2,  the  cane  sugar. 

In  Example  II.  54.6  is  multiplied  by  .7482,  giving  a  re- 
sult of.  40.85. 


INVERT   SUGAR    AND   RAFFINOSK.  85 

46.  Sucrose    in    the    Presence    of    Raf finosc. —  The 

analysis  follows  exactly  the  directions  given  in  the  above 
paragraph,  with  the  exception  that  the  observation  of  the 
inverted  fluid  must  always  take  place  at  20°C.  The  form- 
ula is  also  different,  as  it  must  consider,  besides  the  differ- 
ence in  the  optical  relation  of  cane  sugar,  also  that  of  the 
raffinose,  the  revolution  to  the  right  of  which  goes  back 
considerably  through  inversion.  The  formula  based  upon 
the  above-mentioned  ratio  of  figures  at  the  inversion  of 
cane  sugar,  as  well  as  upon  the  polarization  of  pure  crys- 
tallized raffinose  (13.034*  to  lOCT)  before  inversion 
(4-  157.15)  and  alter  inversion  (+  80.53)  at  20°C  is  as  fol- 
lows : 

z       (0.5124  xP)   ±J 
0.839 

wherein  Z  represents  the  contents  of  cane  sugar,  P  the  po- 
larization of  the  substance  before  inversion,  and  J  the 
polarization  of  the  inverted  solution,  doubled  on  account 
of  the  use  of  half  normal  weight.  As  this  formula  is  reck- 
oned only  for  the  temperature  of  20°C,  the  expression  T  is 
omitted. 

Example  :  The  after-product  of  a  refinery  polarized  be- 
fore inversion  r  94.5  and  after  inversion  r  13.8  (at  20°C.) 
From  these  figures  a  cane  sugar  content  of  90.6  is  calcu- 
lated according  to  the  above  formula. 

„       (.5124x94.5)4(2x13.8)       78.0218 

LI  =— i = =  yu.o 

.8-39  .839 

47.  The  Percentage    of    Raffinose  is  found  by  sub- 
tracting the  true  contents  of  cane  sugar  from  the  polariz- 
ation before   inversion,  and  dividing  by  1.852.     In  the  ex- 
ample in  the  above  paragraph 

94.5  —  90.6  =  3.9. 
394—  1.852  =  2.1  per  cent,  raffinose. 


86  INVERT   SUGAR    AND   RAFFINOSE. 

48.     Invert  Sugar  is  determined    by   the   use   of  the 

mixed  Fehling's  solutiou  described  iti    141.     The  execu- 
tion of  the  test  is  as  follows  : 

Weigh  out  a  definite  amount  of  the  syrup  or  massecuite, 
dissolve  and  make  up  to  100CC.  The  amount  weighed  out 
depends  upon  how  much  invert  sugar  is  in  the  sample?  but 
it  should  be  some  multiple  of  five  gr.  to  make  an  easy  cal- 
culation, and  should  be  sufficient  to  give  a  burette  read- 
ing of  from  15  to  20CC  in  the  operations  which  follow.  The 
diluted  sample  is  placed  in  a  burette  graduated  in  1.10CC. 

In  a  porcelain  casserole  put  10CC  of  the  mixed  Fehling's 
solution  and  add  30CC  of  distilled  water.  Heat  to  boiling, 
add  a  portion  of  the  solution  to  be  tested  and  boil  two 
minutes.  Repeat  this,  adding  the  solution  very  slowly  at 
the  last,  until  the  blue  color  of  the  fluid  has  apparently 
disappeared.  Pour  3  or  4CC  of  the  hot  fluid  on  a  small 
filter,  and  test  the  filtrate  for  copper  by  adding  a  few  drops 
of  potassium  ferrocyanide  (solution  of  20gr  to  1  liter,)  after 
acidifying  with  a  few  drops  of  a  10  per  cent,  solution  of 
acetic  acid.  If  a  brownish-red  color  shows,  add  2CC  of  the 
sugar  solution  to  the  copper  fluid  and  boil  again,  repeating 
the  ferrocyanide  test.  Continue  this  until  the  point  is 
reached  when  there  is  no  further  reaction  of  copper.  The 
reading  of  the  burette  is  then  observed  to  see  how  many 
cc  of  the  sugar  solution  were  necessary  for  the  reduction 
of  the  copper.  The  test  should  always  be  repeated  to  in- 
sure accuracy.  The  calculation  of  the  invert  sugar  is  as 
follows  : 

The  value  of  the  Fehling  solution  must  be  known,  i.  e. 
how  much  invert  sugar  is  necessary  to  reduce  10CC  of  the 
solution.  For  this  purpose  add  to  9.5  grammes  of  chemi- 
cally pure  sugar  in  a  100CC  flask,  5CC  of  hydrochloric  acid 


INVERT   SUGAR   AND   RAFFINOSE.  87 

and  invert  according  to  the  directions  in  44.  Make  up 
to  the  mark  and  the  flask  contains  10gr  of  invert  sugar. 
Making  20CC  of  this  (2&r  of  invert  sugar)  up  to  1  liter  and 
neutralizing  with  sufficient  sodium  carbonate  to  turn  a 
piece  of  litmus  paper  blue,  gives  a  solution  in  which  every 
cc  contains  0.002sr  of  invert  sugar.  Making  the  test  as 
above  described  it  is  tound  how  many7  cubic  centimeters  of 
this  solution  correspond  to  the  10CC  of  copper  solution.  For 
example,  if  25.6CC  of  the  solution  are  used,  it  takes  25.6  x 
.002  =  0.051 2«r  of  invert  sugar  to  reduce  10CC  of  the  Feh- 
ling  solution.  This  0.0512  is  the  factor  F  in  the  formula 
given  below,  but  any  other  factor  may  be  obtained  in  the 
same  way  : 

.002  x  number  of  cc  of  standard  solution  used  =  F. 
From  this  the  percentage  of  invert  sugar  is  obtainable  by  the 

formula 

100    F 

X  Y 

in  which  X  represents  the  number  of  cc  of  unknown  sugar  solution 
required  to  precipitate  the  copper  from  10CC  of  Fehling  solution  and 
Y   equals  the  weight  of  the    material   tested   in   each    lcc  of  the 
w   solution. 

Example  : 

5sr  of  massecuite  are  dissolved  in  100CC  of  water,  hence 

Y  =0.05gr 

Let  18.5  represent  the  number  of  cc  of  the  solution  tested 
which  are  necessary  to  reduce  the  copper  solution.  Then 

X=  18.5. 

Let  0.0512  represent  the  factor  F,  obtained  as  above  described. 
According  to  the  formula, 

100  *.Q512==  ill  -  5.53,  per  cent,  invert  sugar. 
18.5  x  .05         .925  * 

49.  Soxhlet's  Exact  Method,  as  used  by  the  ASSO- 
CIATION of  OFFICIAL  AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTS  is  as 
follows  : 


88  INVERT   SUGAR   AND    RAFFINOSE- 

A  preliminary  titration  is  made  to  determine  the  ap- 
proximate percentage  of  reducing  sugar  in  the  material 
under  examination.  A  solution  is  prepared  which  contains 
approximately  1  per  cent,  of  reducing  sugar.  Place  in  a 
beaker  100CC  of  the  mixed  copper  reagent  and  approxi- 
mately the  amount  of  the  sugar  solution  for  its  complete 
reduction.  Boil  for  two  minutes.  Filter  through  a  folded 
filter  and  test  a  portion  of  the  filtrate  for  copper  by  use  of 
acetic  acid  and  potassium  ferrocyanide.  Repeat  the  test, 
varying  the  volume  of  sugar  solution,  until  two  successive 
amounts  of  sugar  solution  are  found  which  differ  by  O.lcc, 
one  giving  complete  reduction  and  the  other  leaving  a  small 
amount  of  copper  in  solution.  The  mean  of  these  two 
readings  is  taken  as  the  volume  of  the  solution  required  for 
the  complete  precipitation  of  100CC  of  the  copper  reagent. 

Under  these  conditions  100CC  of  the  mixed  copper  rea- 
gent require  0.475  gram  of  anhydrous  dextrose,  or  0.494 
gram  of  invert  sugar,  for  complete  reduction.  The  per- 
centage is  calculated  by  the  following  formula  : 

W  =  the  weight  of  the  sample  in  1<*  of  the  sugar  solution  ; 
V  =  the  volume  of  the  sugar  solution  required  for  the  complete 
reduction  of  100CC  of  the  copper  reagent. 

Then  10°  x  °  475  =  per  cent,  of  dextrose, 
or — : .  =  per  cent,  of  invert  sugar. 


PART  II. 


ANALYSIS  or  SUPPLIES 


AND  OTHER 


CHEMICAL  WORK. 


CHAPTER  VII. 
APPARATUS  FOR  CHEMICAL  ANALYSIS. 

5O.  The  Apparatus  used  in  the  chemical  analysis  in 
beet  sugar  work  is  the  same  that  is  found  in  nearly  all 
analytical  laboratories,  hence  only  a  short  description  will 
be  given  of  the  apparatus  most  necessary,  with  a  few  sug- 
gestions as  to  their  use. 

Beakers  are  preferably  of  the  Griffin  form, 
with  lip,  shown  in  Fig.  35.  The  sizes  which 
will  be  most  often  used  are  the  5  and  the  8 
ounce,  and  the  10,  12  and  15  ounce  are  occa- 
sionally used.  The  larger  sizes  30  and  40 

ounce  are  often  serviceable  for  mixing      v -^ 

solutions.       The    conical    assay    flask      Fig.  35. 
(Fig.  36)  of  4  oz.  capacity  is  the  best 
form  for  dissolving  metals  or  stones  with  acids, 
as  in  the  limestone  analysis. 

Glass  Rods  tipped  with  rubber  are  used  for 
stirring  and  for  pouring  precipitated  solutions  on 
filter  paper  as  in  Fig.  37.  Tallow  is  rubbed  with  the 
greased  finger  under  the  lip  of  the  beaker  before  this  opera- 
tion. Rods  %  inch  in  diameter  are  of  the  best  size.  For 
cleaning  residues  from  platinum  or  porcelain  dishes,  a  glass 
rod  bent  at  right  angles  about  half  an  inch  from  one  end, 
and  covered  with  a  short  piece  of  rubber  tubing  may  be 
used. 

Funnels  used  in  chemical  analysis  are  from  1  to  2^ 
inches  in  diameter,  the  2-inch  size  being  the  one  most  gen- 
erally needed.  They  should  have  long  stems  and  should 
be  on  an  angle  of  60°.  In  filtering,  the  stem  of  the  funnel 


APPARATUS    FOR    CHEMICAL   ANALYSIS. 


should  be  placed  against  the  side 
of  the  beaker  receiving  the  fil- 
trate to  prevent  splattering  of 
the  fluid. 

Filter  Paper  should  be  of  the 
Swedish  quality.  It  leaves  the 
least  ash  of  any  filter  paper 
known,  and  in  the  analyses  out- 
lined in  the  following  chapters, 
no  account  is  taken  of  the  weight 
of  the  ash  of  the  filter  paper 
after  incineration,  as  it  is  insig- 
nificant except  in  the  most  deli- 
cate determinations.  The  paper 
should  be  cut  round  and  of  such 
size  that  it  will  be  about  half 
filled  with  the  precipitate.  In 
all  cases,  except  those  specially 
noted,  the  filter  paper  should  be 


Fig.  38. 


Fig.  37. 

fitted  on  the  funnel  and  moist- 
ened with  distilled  water.  One 
of  the  principal  sources  of  error 
in  analysis  is  that  precipitates 
are  not  thoroughly  washed.  In 
nearly  all  cases  it  is  better  to 
wash  the  precipitate  by  de- 
cantation  as  described  in  59. 
After  the  precipitate  is  on 
the  filter,  it  should  be  washed 
with  distilled  water  until  no  trace 
of  solid  matter  is  given  in  the 
filtrate.  This  is  tested  by  letting 


APPARATUS    FOR    CHEMICAL   ANALYSIS. 


a  drop  from  the  stem  of  the  funnel  fall  upon  the  perfectly 
clean  surface  of  a  small  piece  of  platinum  foil  or  crucible 
cover.  Dry,  and  if  a  residue  remains,  the  precipitate  has 
been  thoroughly  washed.  Wash  again  and  repeat  the  test 
until  no  residue  remains.  Another  method  is  described  in 
the  paragraph  above  cited  (59)  by  testing  with  silver 
nitrate,  and  can  be  used  in  many  instances  in  sugar  labor- 
atories, as  solutions  often  contain  hydrochloric  acid  or 
chlorine  in  some  other  form.  After  filtering,  the  funnel 
containing  the  precipitate  is  placed  in  a  drying  oven  (Fig. 
38)  the  funnel  being  covered  with  a  moistened  piece  of 
filter  paper  turned  down  over  the  rim  to  keep  out  dust. 

Dessicators  are  for  the  puipose  of  keeping  hot  sub- 
stances from  absorbing 
moisture  while  cooling,  and 
for  carrying  them  to  the 
balance.  A  good  form  is 
shown  in  Fig.  39.  The 
bottom  is  filled  with  fused 
calcium  chloride  to  keep 
the  air  dry.  The  lid  and 
the  part  of  the  dessicator 

where  it  joins  are  ground,  and  tallow  is  used  to  make  the 

apparatus  air-tight. 

Crucibles  and  Dishes  for  incinerating  should  be  of 
platinum,  but  in  some  analyses  porcelain  is  to  be  used. 
Sapolio  is  one  of  the  best  agents  for  cleaning  dishes  and 
crucibles  of  all  kinds.  After  a  magnesium  precipitate  is 
burned  with  nitric  acid  (58)  the  crucible  should  be  partly 
filled  with  concentrated  hydrochloric  acid  and  allowed  to 
stand  until  the  precipitate  is  loosened  or  dissolved. 


APPARATUS    FOR    CHEMICAL   ANALYSIS- 


93 


Lamps  and  Stoves. — Gas  burners  are  to  be  preferred,  of 
course,  but  sugar  factories  are  generally  so  located  that  gas 
is  not  obtainable.  The  gasoline 
stove  shown  in  Fig.  40  is  to  be  rec- 
ommended, as  enough  heat  can  be 
generated  by  it  to  effect  any  incin- 
eration liable  to  be  made,  and  the 
flame  can  be  lowered  when  neces- 
sary, to  give  a  very  moderate  heat. 
To  give  a  good  flame,  the  reservoir 
of  the  stove  should  never  be  filled 
more  than  two-thirds  full.  Alco- 
hol lamps  should  be  used  for 
evaporating  and  for  heating  solu- 
tions. The  best  form  has  a 
Fig-  40.  side  tubulation  for  filling. 

Coal-oillamp  stoves 
(F.  33)  may  be  used 
in  place  of  the  al- 
cohol lamps,  but 
great  care  must  be 
taken  with  them, 
on  account  of  the 
danger  of  smoking 
and  the  accumula- 
tion of  soot.  The 
blue  flame  kerosene 
stoves  of  recent  in- 
vention are  excel- 
lent for  laboratory 
use,  the  only  ob- 
jection to  them  be- 
ing that  they  occu- 
py too  much  space. 


Fig.  41. 


94  APPARATUS   FOR   CHEMICAL   ANALYSIS. 

Other  Apparatus* — Evaporation  dishes  should  be  of  por- 
celain as  described  in  53.  Scales  and  Weights  are  de- 
scribed in  8.  Fig.  41  shows  the  short-arm  chemical  scale, 
which  form  is  generally  accepted  to  be  the  best.  Washing 
Bottles  for  containing  alcohol,  dilute,  acids,  etc.,  should  be  of 
about  300cccapacity  and  made  as  in  9c  (see  F37).  Burettes 
are  the  same  as  those  used  in  sugar  analysis  (9d).  Pipettes 
most  used  are  graduated  to  5,  10,  25,  50  and  100CC.  They 
are  tested  as  described  in  4 .  Lampstands  should  be  fitted 
with  two  extension  rings  and  an  extension  clamp,  the 
rings  being  of  about  two  and  four  inches  inside  diameter. 
Water  Baths  are  of  copper  with  a  covering  of  concentric 
rings,  and  should  be  six  or  seven  inches  in  diameter. 
Crucible  Tongs  are  of  various  forms,  one  of  the 
best  being  shown  in  Fig.  42.  The  tips  should  be 
nickel  plated.  Graduated  Cylinders  or  the  usual 
graduates  divided  into  cubic  centimeters  (F) 
may  be  used  for  measuring  fluids,  250CC  being  the 
most  desirable  capacity.  Mortars  for  powdering 
lime  stone  and  other  samples  should  be  of  por- 
celain and  of  the  form  shown  in  F  10.  The 
iron  mortar  shown  in  F  11  is  also  often  serviceable.  Vol- 
umetric Flasks  of  500CC  and  1  liter  capacity  are  necessary 
for  making  solutions  of  known  strength.  Flasks  of  200CC 
or  250CC  capacity  are  used  in  many  analyses.  ALKALIMITERS 
and  other  special  apparatus  are  described  under  the  para- 
graphs in  which  their  use  is  noted. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
WATER  ANALYSIS. 

51.  Water.— The   examination   of  water  for  use   in 
beet  sugar  manufacture  is  usually  confined  to  the  estimation 
of  carbonic  and  sulphuric  acids,   chlorine,  silica,  iron  and 
aluminium  oxides,  calcium  oxide,  magnesium  oxide,  and 
the   alkalies,    sodium   and   potassium.        As   potassium   is 
usually  present  in  only  very  minute  quantities,  as  compared 
with   sodium,  it   is  not   necessary,   except  in   very   exact 
analysis,  to  determine  it  separately.       The  two  alkalies  are 
estimated  together  and  are  called  sodium,   the   potassium 
not  being  counted.     Nitric  acid  is  present  in  such   small 
quantities  in  water  that  it  its  determination  is  not  consid- 
ered of  importance  in  sugar  work.       The  analysis  as  out- 
lined  above   may   be   called   the    "actual    analysis;"    the 
"figured  analysis  "  is  described  in  62. 

52.  The  Sample. — About  4  liters  of  the  water  should 
be  taken  for  analysis.      A  gallon  demijohn  is  a  convenient 
vessel  for  holding  the   sample.     It  should  be  thoroughly 
cleaned  and  well  corked  and  no  luting  of  any  kind  should 
be  used  on  the  cork.     The  sample  should   be  as  near  an 
average  as  possible,  and   if  taken  from  a  faucet  the  water 
should  be  allowed  to  run  for  a  considerable  time.      In  case 
of  a  river,  take  the  sample  from  the  middle  of  the  stream. 
Collect  the  water  with  a  cup  or  other  small  vessel,  taking 
the  samples  at  short  intervals  until  sufficient  is  obtained  for 
the  large  sample. 

53.  The  Mineral  Substance.  —  Filter  2  liters  of  the 
water  and  evaporate  to  dryness.      This  is  best  effected  in  a 
porcelain  dish  over  a  direct  flame.     Do  not  use  a  glass  ves- 


96  WATER   ANALYSIS. 

sel,  as  the  water  attacks  it.  A  dish  about  8  inches  in  di- 
ameter, and  of  the  shape  shown  in  Fig.  43,  is  convenient. 
When  the  water  has  evaporated  to  about 
50CC,  transfer  to  a  weighted  platinum  dish 
and  complete  the  evaporation  on  a  water 
bath.  The  substance  remaining  on  the 
sides  of  the  porcelain  dish  may  be  washed 
into  the  platinum  dish  as  fast  as  the 
evaporation  makes  room.  Use  a  glass  rod 
tipped  with  rubber  for  cleaning  the  porcelain  dish.  After 
evaporation,  place  in  the  drying  oven  at  105°C,  until  the 
last  water  is  driven  off.  Cool  in  a  dessicator  and  weigh. 
The  weight  is  the  total  residue  and  is  figured,  as  in  the 
whole  analysis,  on  100,000  parts  of  water.  Ignite  slowly 
to  a  dull  red  heat,  until  all  organic  matter  is  consumed. 
This  also  occasions  a  loss  of  constitutional  (hydrate)  water 
and  a  slight  loss  by  reduction  of  nitrates.  After  cooling 
and  weighing,  the  amount  found  to  have  been  burned 
away  is  written  lost  by  combustion.  The  total  residue  minus 
the  amount  lost  by  combustion  is  called  the  mineral  substance. 

Example  : 

Weight  of  residue  after  drying 28.195gr 

Weight  of  platinum  dish 26.421gf 

Weight  of  total  residue 1.776gr 

Weight  of  residue  after  drying ...    28. 1 95 

Weight  of  residue  after  burning 27.957 


Weight  lost  by  combustion 238 

Weight  of  total  residue 1.776 

Weight  lost  by  combustion 238 

Weight  of  mineral  substance 1.538 


WATER    ANALYSIS.  97 

These  weights  are  obtained  from  2,000CC  and,  as  the 
analysis  is  figured  on  100,000  parts  of  water,  we  multiply 
by  50,  or  divide  by  2  and  multiply  by  100,  which  is  an 
easier  way  to  figure.  This  gives  a  result  of 

Total  residue  88.8  parts  in  100,000 

Lost  by  combustion 11.9         " 

Mineral  substance  76.9         "          " 

54.*  Carbonic  Acid  which  is  in  combination  with 
bases  is  determined  by  means  of  an  alkalimeter.  The 
form  generally  preferred  is  Geissler's  apparatus,  a  mod- 
ification of  which  is  the  Peffer  alkalimeter  shown  in 
Fig.  44.  This  apparatus  is  designed  especially  for  the 
determination  of  carbonic  acid  (CO2,  carbon  dioxide)  in 
water,  its  form  being  such  that  the  substance  used  for 
the  CO2  test  can  be  easily  removed  for  use  in  other  analy- 
ses. Its  manipulation  is  as  follows : 

Pure  hydrochloric  acid  is  introduced  into  B  through 
the  opening  D.  Having  seen  that  the  cock  F  is 
perfectly  tight,  both  B  and  I  are  removed  and  placed 
standing  in  a  beaker,  clamps  of  a  lamp-stand,  or  some 
other  safe  and  convenient  place.  The  residue,  after 
burning  away  the  organic  matter  (,49),  is  taken  up 
with  the  least  amount  of  water  and  transferred  to  the 

*WANKLYN  measures  carbonic  acid  in  water  by  "taking  advantage  of  the 
insolubility  of  carbonate  of  lime  in  the  ptesence  of  lime-water.  For  this  pur- 
pose  lime-water  is  prepared  by  taking  slaked  lime  and  shaking  it  up  with  dis- 
tilled water,  and  then  allowing  to  settle,  and  ultimately  decanting  the  clear 
supernatent  lime-water.  One  liter  of  lime-water  contains  1.372  gr.  of  CaO."  Use 
500cc  of  the  water  to  be  analyzed  and  mix  it  with  215cc  of  the  lime-water  in  a 
stoppered  vessel.  "The  mixture  is  allowed  to  stand  until  the  precipitate  of 
CaOCO2  has  settled  and  the  supernatent  liquid  becomes  clear.  The  liquid  is  de- 
canted and  the  precipitate  placed  on  a  filter,  slightly  washed,  burned  in  a  plati- 
num dish  or  crucible,  and  finally  weighed."  This  precipitate  must  be  burned  as 
described  in  57  Multiply  the  resulting  weight  of  calcium  carbonate  by  2and  by 
100  to  find  the  amount  in  100,000  parts  of  water,  and  multiply  this  by  .44  (the  fac- 
tor) to  find  the  amount  of  CO2. 


98 


WATER    ANALYSIS. 


flask  A,  through  the  opening-  H.  The  substance  in  the 
flask  should  not  be  higher  than  that  shown  in  the  illus- 
tration to  effect  an  accurate  analysis.  Replace  B  and  I 
in  the  apparatus  and  add  pure  sulphuric  acid  to  I  through 
the  opening  E.  All  the  joints  should  be  made  air-tight 
by  the  use  of  a  very  slight  amount  of  tallow.  Wipe  off 


Fig.  44. 

the  apparatus  thoroughly,  dry  and  weigh  carefully,  re- 
cording the  weight.  Now  open  the  cock  F  and  allow  a 
small  amount  of  the  HC1  to  go  into  A.  Carbonic  acid  is 
freed  and  passes  in  C,  through  I,  and  out  at  E,  the  sul- 


WATER    ANALYSIS.  99 

phuric  acid  drying-  it.  As  fast  as  effervesence  ceases, 
add  more  of  the  acid  until  all  the  HC1  is  in  A.  Then 
carefully  heat  the  bottom  of  the  apparatus  until  the  con- 
tents are  nearly  to  boiling-  point.  This  is  best  done  by 
fixing-  the  alkalimeter  on  a  lamp  stand  and  g"ently 
moving-  the  flame  to  and  fro  under  it.  Five  minutes' 
heating-  is  usually  sufficient.  Allow  the  apparatus  to 
cool  and  attach  a  small  rubber  tube,  about  ten  inches 
long-,  to  the  top  of  C.  Open  the  cock  F  and,  by  aspira- 
tion, draw  out  slowly  throug-h  the  tube  any  g-as  that 
may  remain  in  A.  Detach  the  tube,  wipe  off  the  alkalim- 
eter and  weig-h  ag-ain.  The  weight  lost  is  CO2. 


Example  : 

Weight  of  apparatus  and  contents  before  operation .  .  . 75.5478r 

Weight  of  apparatus  and  contents  after  operation 75.383sr 

Weight  of  CO2  lost 164sr 

Dividing  by  2  and  multiplying  by  100  =  8.2,  the  amount   of 
CO2  in  100,000  parts  of  water. 


55.  Silica. — Transfer  the  contents  of  the  alkalimeter 
to  a  platinum  dish  and  evaporate  to  dryness.  This  coagu- 
lates silicic  acid  that  would  otherwise  go  into  solution 
in  the  operation  which  follows.  Take  up  the  substance 
in  the  dish  with  water  and  a  little  diluted  hydrochloric 
acid,  and  filter  into  a  200CC  flask.  Wash  the  paper  and 
residue  thoroughly  with  hot  water.  The  residue  may 
contain  some  insoluble  iron  and  aluminum  and  calcium 
sulphate  (STILLMAN)  but  it  is  nearly  all  silica  (SiO2)  and 
is  dried,  burned  and  weighed  as  such. 


100  WATER   ANALYSIS. 

Example  : 

Weight  of  crucible  and  residue 11.148gr 

Weight  of  crucible   , .    11.090gr 


Weight  of  residue  (silica) 058gr 

Dividing  by  2  and  multiplying  by  100  =  2.9,  the  silica. 

56.  Iron  and  Aluminum  Oxides.  —  The  200CC  flask 
containing-  the  filtrate  in  55  is  allowed  to  cool  and  is  then 
filled  to  the  mark  and  well  shaken.  Transfer  50CC  of 
this  solution  to  a  beaker  and  make  slig-htly  alkaline 
with  ammonia  water.  This  may  be  tested  by  dropping- 
a  small  piece  of  litmus  paper  in  the  fluid.  Heat  to 
nearly  boiling-  and  iron  and  aluminum  oxides  will  be 
precipitated.  The  use  of  an  excess  of  ammonia  is  to  be 
avoided.  Filter  and  wash  with  the  smallest  amount  of 
hot  water  necessary.  Dry  and  burn  the  precipitate  as 
iron  and  aluminum  oxides. 

Example  : 

Weight  of  crucible  and  precipitate 11.095 

Weight  of  crucible .  .11.090 


Weight  of  precipitate  (Fe2  O3  and  A12  O3  ) 005 

As  two  liters  are  represented  in  the  200CC  filtrate,  50CC 
of  it  corresponds  to  500CC,  hence  the  weig-ht  obtained 
above  must  be  multiplied  by  2  and  by  100,  to  g-ive  the 
parts  in  100,000  parts  water. 

.005  x  2  x  100  =  1.0,  amount  of  Fe2  O3  and  A12  O3. 

57.  Calcium  Oxide.— Make  the  filtrate  in  56  slig-htly 
acid  by  the  addition  of  acetic  acid*.  Heat  to  nearly 

*  Acetic  acid  is  added  to  prevent  the  precipitation  of  any  magnesium  as  mag- 
nesium oxalate.  Chemists  are  not  agreed  as  to  whether  this  is  necessary,  but 
the  acid  does  no  harm,  and  may  do  good. 


WATER   ANALYSIS.  IOI 

boiling",  and  add  ammonium  oxalate  when  calcium  oxa- 
late  will  be  precipitated.  Keep  the  above  heat  for  about 
five  minutes  and  then  allow  to  cool.  If  -the  precipitate 
subsides  immediately  it  is  usually  evidence  that  all  the 
calcium  has  been  precipitated,  but  if  the  supernatent 
fluid  remains  milky  for  some  time,  heat  again  and  add 
ammonia  oxalate.  Even  if  the  precipitate  subsides 
almost  immediately,  add  a  slight  amount  of  the 
reagent  to  see  if  this  addition  causes  a  precipitation. 
After  cooling-,  filter  and  wash  with  warm  very  dilute 
acetic  acid.  Wash  the  precipitate  all  into  the  apex  of 
the  filter  paper.  Dry,  and  burn  as  follows :  Separate 
the  precipitate  from  the  filter  paper  with  a  clean  knife 
blade;  burn  the  paper  until  it  gives  a  white  ash,  then 
lower  the  flame,  add  the  precipitate  to  the  crucible  and 
burn  at  a  heat  which  turns  the  part  of  the  crucible 
nearest  the  flame  to  a  dull  red.  In  burning-,  the  calcium 
oxalate  becomes  calcium  carbonate, 

CaC204=CaC03  +  CO  (burned  away.) 

At  a  hig-h  heat  the  CO2  would  also  be  driven  off,  leav- 
ing- only  calcium  oxide  (CaO).  The  precipitate  turns 
black  and  when  it  has  become  white  ag-ain  it  has  been 
sufficiently  burned.  At  this  point  moisten  with  ammonium 
carbonate  and  heat  carefully  until  all  odor  of  ammonia 
is- driven  off.  This  will  restore  any  CO2  that  may  have 
been  burned  away.  Cool  and  weig-h  as  calcium  carbo- 
nate, multiplying-  by  .56  to  get  the  weight  of  calcium 
oxide. 

Example  : 

Weight  of  crucible  and  precipitate 11.237gr 

Weight  of  crucible 11.0908r 

Weight  of  precipitate  (CaCO3) 147gr 


102  WATER    ANALYSIS. 

As  in  the  above  paragraph,  multiplying-  by  2  and  by 
100  =  29.4,  the  calcium  carbonate. 

29.4  x  .56  =  16.464  or  16.46,  the  calcium  oxide. 

58.  Magnesium  Oxide.  —  When  the  filtrate  in  57  is 
cool,  add  to  it  ammonia  water  in  excess,*  and  sodium 
phosphate.  (In  very  dilute  solutions,  the  addition  of  2 
or  3gr  of  crystallized  ammonium  chloride  will  hasten 
precipitation.)  Let  stand  (not  in  a  warm  place)  for  12 
hours  and  magnesium  ammonium  phosphate  will  be  pre- 
cipitated. Filter  and  wash  with  the  precipitate  with  a 
mixture  of  strong*  ammonia  diluted  with  an  equal 
amount  of  water  (WANKLYN).  Magnesium  ammo- 
nium phosphate  is  soluble  in  water  to  some  extent,  and 
this  is  prevented  almost  entirely  by  the  liberal  use  of 
ammonia.  Dry  the  precipitate  and  burn.  In  burning-, 
the  mag-nesium  ammonium  phosphate  becomes  mag-ne- 
sium  pyrophosphate  : 

2NH4  MgPO4  =  2NH3  +  H2  O  -j-  Mg2  P2  Or. 
The  addition  of  nitric  acid  to  the  crucible  after  burn- 
ing- for  a  little  while  will  make  the  pyrophosphate  yield 
a  white  residue.  Cool  the  crucible  before  adding-  the 
acid,  and  then  apply  the  heat  slowly  to  prevent  any  loss 
of  substance.  When  ig-nition  is  complete,  cool  and 
weig-h,  and  multiply  by  .3602  to  find  the  amount  of  mag-- 
nesium  oxide. 

Example  : 
Weight  of  crucible  and  precipitate  ........................  11.160gr 

Weight  of  crucible  .......................................   11.0908r 


Weight  of  precipitate  (Mg2  P2  O7  ) 
.07  x  2  x  100  =  14,  the  magnesium  pyrophosphate. 
14  x  .3602  =  5.04,  the  magnesium  oxide. 


*  Add  ammonia  water  to   about    %  the  amount  of  the  original  filtrate. — 

KlSSBL. 


WATER    ANALYSIS.  103 

59.  Sulphuric  Acid. — Measure  off  50CC  of  the  solution 
in  56,  and  put  in  a  beaker.  Heat  nearly  to  boiling- 
point  and  add  barium  chloride  in  slight  excess.  The 
precipitate  is  barium  sulphate.  Heat  for  a  few  minutes 
long-er  and  allow  to  stand  for  about  three  hours  in  a 
warm  place.  Filter  off  the  supernatent  fluid,  then  add 
boiling-  water  to  the  precipitate  in  the  beaker  and  stir 
well.  Allow  to  settle  and  ag-ain  filter  off  the  fluid.  Add 
boiling-  water  and  repeat  the  above  operation  until  the 
filtrate  g-ives  no  traces  of  chlorine.  This  can  be  tested 
by  allowing-  a  few  drops  from  the  stem  of  the  funnel  to 
fall  into  a  small  test  tube  containing-  a  solution  of  silver 
nitrate.  A  white  precipitate  indicates  chlorine.  When 
the  filtrate  is  free  from  chlorine,  transfer  the  precipitate 
to  the  filter  paper,  wash  with  hot  water,  dry  and  burn  at 
a  moderate  red  heat.  Weig-h  as  barium  sulphate  and 
multiply  by  .3431  to  find  the  weig-ht  of  sulphuric  acid 
(sulphuric  anhydride,  SO3.) 

Example  : 

Weight  of  crucible  and  precipitate .11  553 

Weight  of  crucible 11.090 

Weight  of  precipitate  (  BaSO4  )  . ., 463 

.463  x  2  x  100  =  92  6,  the  barium  sulphate. 
92.6  x  .3431  =  31.77,  the  sulphuric  acid. 

The  determination  of  sulphuric  acid  requires  the 
greatest  care  and  attention,  to  give  accurate  results. 
The  precipitate  is  very  liable  to  carry  down  with  it  such 
foreign  salts  as  the  alkalies,  alkali-earth  metals  and  iron 
oxide,  and  if  the  barium  chloride  solution  is  too  concen- 
trated, there  will  be  traces  of  it  in  the  barium  sulphate. 
A  thoroug-h  washing-,  as  above  described,  will  usually 
give  accurate  results.  Sulphuric  acid  is  precipitated 
more  readily  in  dilute  than  in  concentrated  solutions,  and 


104  WATER   ANALYSIS. 

some  analysts  prefer  to  make  the  determination  with  a 
separate  portion  of  water,  evaporating-  200CC  or  500CC  to 
about  >2 ,  and  continuing-  as  above. 

6O.  Sodium.— Use  50CC  of  the  200CC  solution  in  56. 
If  the  solution  is  very  strongly  acid,  add  sufficient  am- 
monia to  bring-  it  nearly  neutral.  Heat  nearly  to  boiling- 
and  add  an  excess  of  baryta  water.  The  salts  of  cal- 
cium, mag-nesium,  iron  and  aluminum,  and  also  silicic 
and  sulphuric  acids,  will  be  precipitated.  Filter  while 
hot  and  wash  with  hot  water.  Heat  ag-ain  to  nearly 
boiling-  point  and  add  a  few  drops  of  ammonia  and  then 
sufficient  ammonium  carbonate  to  precipitate  the  barium 
present.  Filter  and  evaporate  to  dryness,  with  the  addi- 
tion of  a  few  drops  of  ammonium  oxalate  solution,  to 
precipitate  any  traces  of  calcium  salts  which  may  have 
remained.  Dry  at  120°,  and  over  a  low  flame  burn  care- 
fully until  all  odor  of  ammonia  is  g-one.  Take  up  the 
residue  with  hot  water  and  filter.  To  the  nitrate  add  a 
few  cc  of  hydrochloric  acid  and  evaporate  to  dryness  in  a 
weig-hed  platinum  dish.  The  residue  consists  of  the 
alkali  chlorides,  the  addition  of  the  hydrochloric  acid 
having-  made  the  chlorine  combination.  As  stated  be- 
fore, potassium  is  present  in  natural  waters  in  such 
small  quantities  in  comparison  to  sodium,  that  the  whole 
residue  is  called  sodium  chloride.  It  is  calculated  to  so- 
dium by  multiplying-  with  the  factor  0.3940. 

Example  : 

Weight  of  dish  and  residue 26.388 

Weight  of  dish 26.276 

Weight  of  residue  (NaCl) 1 12 

.112  x  2  x  100  =  22.4,  the  sodium  chloride. 
22.4  x  .3940  =  8.82,  the  sodium. 


WATER   ANALYSIS.  105 

61.  Chlorine  is  determined  by  use  of  a  standard  so- 
lution of  silver  nitrate  (14O),  of  which  one  cubic  centi- 
meter will  precipitate  one  milligramme  of  chlorine.  Add 
a  few  drops  of  potassium  chromate  to  100CC  of  the  water 
sample,  or  to  a  larger  volume  evaporated  to  about  100CC, 
which  should  be  made  faintly  alkaline  by  the  addition  of 
a  little  sodium  carbonate.     From  a  burette  carefully  add 
the   silver   nitrate  solution,   stirring-  constantly.      Each 
drop  of  the  solution  forms  a  red  spot  of  silver  chromate, 
which  decomposes  upon  stirring-.     At  the  very  earliest 
point  when  this  red  coloration  becomes  permanent,  the 
burette  should  be  read,  and  the  number  noted    of   the 
cc  of  solution  used.       As  each  cc  denotes  the  number  of 
milligrammes  of  chlorine  in  the  sample,  the  calculation 
of  the  percentag-e  is  easy. 

Example : 

lOOOcc  of  water  are  evaporated  to  about  lOQcc  and  tested  as 
above,  32.1cc  of  solution  being  necessary  to  precipitate  the  chlorine. 

32. lcc  solution  =  32.1  mg  of  chlorine,  or  0.0321gr. 

.032Ur  in  lOOOcc  =  3.2lsr  in  lOO.OOQcc, 

or,  3.21  parts  chlorine  in  100,000  parts  water. 

62.  The   Figured   Analysis   is    a  calculation    which 
shows  in  what  form  the  bases  and  acids  found  in  the 
actual  analysis  are  combined  in  the  water.      The  arrang-e- 
ment  is  usually  the  same,  but  if  the  chemist  has  reason 
to  believe  that  another  combination  is  more  correct,  he  is 
allowed  a  certain  latitude. 

Silica  is  put  down  in  the  free  state,  unless  there 
should  be  an  insufficient  amount  of  CO2)  SO3  and  Cl  to 
combine  with  the  bases,  in  which  case  enoug-h  silica  is 
used  to  combine  with  whatever  sodium  may  remain  to 


106  WATER    ANALYSIS. 

form  sodium  silicate  (Na2SiO3.)  Iron  and  aluminum 
oxides  are  recorded  as  such. 

The  figuring*  is  begun  with  chlorine.  It  is  combined 
with  sodium  as  sodium  chloride  (NaCl).  If  there  is  an  ex- 
cess of  chlorine,  it  is  combined  with  magnesium  (MgfCl  ) 
but  if  the  sodium  is  in  excess,  the  remainder  is  com- 
bined with  sulphuric  acid  as  sodium  sulphate  (Na2SO4). 
In  this  case  oxygen  has  to  be  "borrowed."  The  re- 
mainder of  the  sulphuric  acid  is  combined  with  mag- 
nesium oxide  as  magnesium  sulphate  (  MgSO4  )  and  if 
there  is  not  sufficient  .magnesium  oxide,  whatever  sul- 
phuric acid  may  then  remain  is  combined  with  calcium 
oxide  as  calcium  sulphate  (  CaSO4  ).  On  the  other 
hand,  if  magnesium  oxide  is  in  excess  of  the  remaining 
sulphuric  acid,  the  excess  is  combined  with  carbonic  acid 
as  magnesium  carbonate  (  MgCO3  )  and  the  calcium 
oxide  combined  with  the  remaining  carbonic  acid,  as  cal- 
cium carbonate  (  CaCO3  ).  The  calcium  oxide  and 
carbonic  acid  should  almost  invariably  be  combined  as 
much  as  possible.  However,  when  the  evaporated  water 
is  strongly  alkaline,  sodium  carbonate  (Na2CO3)  is  pres- 
ent, and  part  of  the  carbonic  acid  should  be  combined 
with  sodium. 

All  calculations  may  be  performed  by  the  use  of 
factors.  To  illustrate  the  figured  analysis,  the  examples 
given  in  this  chapter  will  be  taken. 

Resume  : 

Carbonic  Acid  (  CO2  ) 8.20 

Silica  (  SiO2  ) 2.90 

Iron  and  Aluminium  Oxides  (  Fe2  O3  and  A12  O3  ) 1.00 

Calcium  Oxide 16.46 

Magnesium  Oxide   5.04 

Sulphuric  Acid  (SO3)  31.77 

Sodium 8.82 

Chlorine  . ,  .  3.21 


WATER   ANALYSIS.  1 07 

The  following  is  the  figured  analysis: 

NaCl=  5.29  (all  Cl  x  1.6503) 2. 09  Na  used. 

Na2SO4=20.75  (6.73  Na  x  3.083)  11.69  SO3  used,  6.73    "     2.33  O  used 

MgSO4=  15.13  (all  MgOx3.0015)10.09        "  8.82  all  of  Na. 

CaSO4=i6.98(9.99SO3xl. 6996)   9.99        "          6.99  CaO  used. 

CaCO3=16.91(9.47CaOxl. 7856)31. 77 all  of  SO3  9.47 

==  7.44  CO2  used 

C()2=     .76  (in  excess).    ..  .16.46  all  of  CaO  .76 

SiO2=  2.90 8.20  all  of  CO2 

Fe*»Al=  1  00. 

In  the  above  calculation  it  is  necessary  to  take  2.33 
parts  of  oxygen  for  combination  with  sodium  sulphate, 
and  0.76  parts  of  carbonic  acid  are  in  excess.  Both 
these  are  ^recorded  in  the  following  form  of  "full 
analysis:" 

In  100,000  parts  water. 

Total  solids 88 .8 

Lost  by  combustion 11.9 

Mineral  substance .  76 . 9 

Silica 2. 90  or  Silica 2.90 

Iron  and  Aluminum  Oxides  1.00  Iron  and  Aluminum  Oxides  1.00 

Carbonic  Acid  (CO2) 8.20  Carbonic  Acid  (CO2) 76 

Calcium  Oxide 16.46       Calcium  Carbonate    16.91 

Sulphuric  Acid  (SO3) 31.76  Calcium  Sulphate 16.98 

Magnesium  Oxide 5.04  Magnesium  Sulphate  ...    .15.13 

Chlorine 3 .21  Sodium  Chloride 5  29 

Sodium [882  Sodium  Sulphate 20.75 

(Oxygen  for  Na2SO4)    J   2  33 


79.72  79.72 


This  method  of  analysis  gives  a  double  check  on  the 
results.     The  total  of  the   "actual  analysis"  should  be 


108  WATER    ANALYSIS. 

the  same  as  the  total  of  the  "figured  analysis,"  and  each 
should  be  equal  to  or  only  slightly  more  than  the  min- 
eral substance  found  by  direct  analysis.  In  the  example 
above  given  the  mineral  substance  is  76.9  and  the  total 
found  by  individual  analyses  is  79.72,  a  difference  of  2.82. 
It  rarely  occurs,  on  account  of  unavoidable  errors,  that 
the  two  will  exactly  agree,  but  the  difference  ought  not 
to  exceed  that  in  the  example*. 


*  The-student  is  referred  to  Fresenius'  quantitative  analysis  (second  Ameri- 
can edition)  pages  207,  208  and  209,  also  pages  842  and  843. 


CHAPTER  IX. 
LIMESTONE  ANALYSIS. 

63.  A  Complete  Analysis    of   limestone  is  unneces- 
sary in  sugar  work.      It  is  sufficient  to  find  the  principal 
constituents,    which    are    silica,    iron    and    aluminium 
oxides,    calcium   carbonate,    magnesium    carbonate  and 
calcium  sulphate.      It  is  also  usual  to  make  a  moisture 
determination.      Organic  matter,  phosphoric  acid,  alkali 
silicates,  etc.,  are  not  determined. 

64.  Preparation  of  Sample.  —  The  sample  consists  of 
six  or  eight  small  stones,  which  represent  an  average  of 
the  quarry  from  which  they  are  taken.       The  stones  are 
broken  and  from  each  one  a  couple  of  pieces  weighing 
about  half    a  gramme  each  are  taken  to  make  up  the 
sample  for  analyzing.      The  pieces  should  not  be  taken 
from  the  outside  of  the  stone,  which  may  have  suffered 
decomposition,  and  should  be  free  from  any  streaks  of 
iron,  or  sulphides,  or  other  matter  which  is  not  generally 
present  in  the   stone.     Transfer    to   a    clean   porcelain 
mortar  and  reduce  to  a  very  fine  powder. 

65.  Moisture.  —  Weigh  out  2}^8r  of   the  powdered 
sample  on  a  watch  glass  and  dry  for  an  hour  at  110- 
120°C.   Cool  in  a  dessicator  and  weigh  again.   The  weight 
lost  is  water  ;  divided  by  2^2  ,   the  weight  of  substance 
used,  and  multiplied  by  100,  will  give  the  percentage. 

Example  : 

Weight  of  watchglass  and  stone  before  drying  ..............  35.942gr 

Weight  of  watchglass  and  stone  after  drying  ...............  35.934gr 

Weight  lost  (moisture) 
.008  -r     2.5  =  .0032.       .0032  x  100  ==  .32  per  cent  moisture. 


OF  THE 


110  LIMESTONE   ANALYSIS. 

66.  Carbonic  Acid.  (Carbon  dioxide,  CO2.)  The 
dried  sample,  after  the  moisture  is  determined,  is  trans- 
ferred to  an  alkalimeter,  and  the  percentage  of  CO2  is 
determined,  as  in  54. 

Example  : 

Weight  of  apparatus  and  contents 77.803gr 

Weight  of  same  after  operation 76.766gr 


Weight  lost  (CO2) 1.037gr 

1.037  ~  2.5  =  .4148.        .4148  x  100  =  41.48  per  cent,  carbonic  acid. 

67.  Silica.   (  SiO2  )      The  contents  of  the  alkalim- 
eter are  transferred  to  a  platinum  dish  and  evaporated 
to  dryness.     Take  up  the  residue  with  dilute  hydrochlo- 
ric acid  (1  part  acid,  4  parts  water)   and  filter  into  a 
250CC  flask.      Wash  the  residue  in  the  filter  thoroughly 
with  hot  water,  and  then  dry  it  at  100°.    Burn  in  a  tared 
crucible,  over  a  moderate  flame.       Cool  and  weigh.      As 
the  substance  tested  weighed  2>^gr,  the  weight  of  silica 
obtained  must  be  divided  by  5  and  multiplied  by  2,  to  de- 
termine the  weight  in  lgr.       This  multiplied  by  100  will 
give  the  percentage  of  silica. 

Example  : 

Weight  of  crucible  and  residue 11.146gr 

Weight  of  crucible 11.088*r 

Weight  of  residue  (silica) 058gr 

.058  -4-  5  =  .0116.  .0116  x  2  =  .0232. 

.0232  x  100  =  2.32  per  cent,  silica. 

68.  Iron  and  Aluminum  Oxides.      (Fe2O.,  and  A12O3.) 
When  the  filtrate  in   67   is   cool,   fill  the  flask  to  the 
mark  with   water.       Shake  well  and   measure   off    50CC. 
Make  alkaline  with  ammonia  and  precipitate,  filter  and 


LIMESTONE    ANALYSIS.  Ill 


• 

ecPxo 


burn  the  iron  and  al^Bium  oxides,  as  described  in  56. 
The  weig-ht  obtained^orresponds  to  >^gr  of  the  stone 
and  must  be  multiplied  by  2  and  100  to  give  the  per- 
centage. 

Example  : 

Weight  of  crucible  and  precipitate 11.0948r 

Weight  of  crucible 11.088«r 


Weight  of  precipitate  (Fe2  O3  and  A12  O3) 0068r 

.006  x  2  x  100  =  1.2  per  cent  iron  and  aluminium  oxide. 


g>9.  Calcium  Oxide  (Ca^.  The  nitrate  from  the 
iron  and  aluminum  precipidjBn  is  heated  with  the  ad- 
oition  of  acetic  acid,  and  calcium  oxide  is  determined  as 
in  57.  The  resulting-  weig-ht  must  be  multiplied  by  2 
and  100  to^ive  the  percentag-e  of  CaO  in  the  stone. 

Example  : 

Weight  of  crucible  and  precipitate 11 .557gr 

Weight  of  crucible 11.088gr 

Weight  of  precipitate  (CaCO3) , 469gr 

-  . 469x2  +  100  —  93.8^f  cen t.  CaCO3. 
93. 8 x  .56  =52. 528  or  52. 53  per  cent.  CaO. 

7O.  Magnesium  Oxide  (Mg-O)  is  determined  as  in 
58.  The  percentag-e  is  found  by  multiplying-  the  weig-ht 
of  mag-nesium  oxide  by  2  and  100  as  above. 

Example  : 

Weight  of  crucible  and  precipitate 11 . 103gr 

Weight  of  crucible 11 . 0888r 

Weight  of  precipitate  (Mg2P2O7) 015«r 

.015  x  .3602  =  .0054,  weight  of  magnesium  oxide. 
.  0054  x2xlOO  =  1.08  per  cent,  magnesium  oxide . 


112  LIMESTONE    ANALYSIS. 

71.  Sulphuric  Acid  (SO3)  is  determined  by  precipita- 
tion as  barium  sulphate  as  in  59V*  From  the  250CC  flask 
containing-  the  original  solution  (67  and  68)  50CC  is 
measured  off  and  used  for  the  determination.  The 
weight  obtained  is  multiplied  by  2  and  100  to  find  the 
percentag-e. 
Example  : 

Weight  of  crucible  and  precipitate  ............  ,  ...........  11  .  103sr 

Weight  of  crucible  ........................................  11  .  088sr 


Weight  of  precipitate  (BaSO4) 
.  015  x  .3431=  .00515,  weight  of  SO3. 
.  00515  x  2x  100  ==1.03  per  cent,  sulphuric  acid. 

72.  The  Figured  Analysis  is  calculated  in  the  same 
manner  as  that  described  in  water  analysis  with  the 
difference  that  there  are  fewer  constituents  to  consider. 
Moisture,  silica  and  the  oxides  of  iron  and  aluminum  are 
set  down  as  determined.  Sulphuric  acid  is  combined 
with  calcium  oxide,  the  remaining1  calcium  oxide  being- 
combined  with  carbonic  acid.  The  remaining-  carbonic 
acid  is  combined  with  mag-nesium  oxide.  It  usually 
happens  that  the  carbonic  acid  is  >a  trifle  too  much  or 
too  little  to  make  the  combinations  exact,  but  the  excess 
of  CO2  or  Mg-O  must  always  be  recorded. 

The  form  g-iven  below  may  be  used  for  recording- 
analyses,  the  actual  analysis  being-  on  the  left  and  the 
fig-ured  analysis  on  the  rig-ht.  In  the  latter  the  calcium 
sulphate  is  determined  by  multiplying-  the  sulphuric 
acid  by  1.6996,  the  factor;  the  calcium  oxide  which  re- 
mains is  multiplied  by  1.7856,  to  g-ive  the  calcium  car- 
bonate ;  and  the  carbonic  acid  which  remains, 
multiplied  by  1.9091,  gives  the  mag-nesium  carbonate,  an 
excess  of  magnesium  carbonate  being-  left. 


LIMESTONE    ANALYSIS.  113 

Limestone  Sample  : 

Moisture 32  o/  Moisture 32 

Silica    2.32  Silica 232 

Iron  and  Aluminum  Ox-  Iron  and  Aluminum    Ox- 
ides      1.20  ides 1.20 

Calcium  Oxide 52.53  Calcium  Carbonate 92  51 

Magnesium  Oxide 1.08  Calcium  Sulphate 1.75 

Sulphuric  Acid  (SO3) 1  03  Magnesium  Carbonate 1.49 

Carbonic  Acid  (CO2) 41.48  Excess  Magnesium  Oxide.        37 

Undetermined    .  .04  Undetermined  . .  .04 


100.00  100.00 

The  value  of  the  limestone  depends  upon  the  amount 
of  good  lime  which  can  be  burned  from  it  at  the  least 
cost.  The  best  stone  usually  has  95  or  96  per  cent,  cal- 
cium carbonate,  and  no  calcium  sulphate.  When  the 
Steffens'  process  is  used,  the  best  stone  is  dependent  both 
upon  the  salts  in  the  molasses  and  the  time  it  takes  for 
the  lime  to  slake,  which  is  burned  from  the  stone. 

73.  Lime  may  be  analyzed  according-  to  the  method 
g-iven  for  limestone.  If  any  sulphuric  acid  is  present  it 
is  combined  with  calcium  oxide.  The  carbonic  acid  is 
combined  with  mag-nesium  oxide,  and  the  excess  with 
calcium  oxide.  The  remaining-  calcium  oxide  is  recorded 
as  lime. 


CHAPTER  X. 
COAL,   COKE,  AND  FUEL  OIL. 

74.  Coal*  The  estimation  of  moisture,  coke  and 
volatile  matters,  and  ash  are  required  in  coal  analysis. 
To  determine  the  moisture  weigh  out  10gr  of  a  powdered 
average  sample  and  heat  at  110-115°C  for  one  hour. 
This  is  a  sufficient  length  of  time  to  drive  off  all  the 
water,  and  in  a  longer  heating  there  is  danger  of  the 
sample  gaining  in  weight  by  the  oxidation  of  sulphides 
and  hydrocarbons.  (PRESENIUS.)  Cool  in  a  dessicator 
and  weigh.  The  loss  is  moisture. 

Take  1-10  of  the  dried  coal  (representing  l«r  of  the 
original  sample)  and  burn  over  an  exceedingly  hot  flame 
until  all  carbonaceous  matter  is  consumed  and  the  ash  is 
white  or  reddish  colored.  Cool  in  a  dessicator  and 
weigh.  The  loss  is  put  down  as  coke  and  volatile  mat- 
ters and  the  remainder  is  ash.  The  complete  analysis 
is  figured  as  follows: 

Weight  of  dish  and  coal 36.282gr 

Weight  of  dish ' 26.282gr 

Coal  taken lO.OOOgr 

Dish  and  coal  before  drying 36 . 2828r 

Dish  and  coal  after  drying 36.222gr 

Water  lost 060gr 

.060  ~  10  x  100  =  .60  per  cent,  mosture. 

10gr_  .060gr  =  9. 940gr  remaining,  1-10  of  9.94gr  =  .994gr. 

Weight  of  crucible  and  coal 15 . 337gr 

Weight  of  crucible 14.343gr 

Coal  taken  .  994gr 


COAL,    COKE   AND   FUEL   OIL.  115 

Weight  of  crucible  and  coal  before  burning 15.337«r 

Weight  of  crucible  and  ash  after  burning 14.3968r 

Coke  and  volatile  matters  lost 941gr 

.941  -f-  1  x  100  =  94. 1,  per  cent,  coke  and  volatile  matters. 

Weight  of  crucible  and  ash 14.3%gr 

Weight  of  crucible 14.343*r 

Weight  of  ash 053Sr 

. 053  -:—  1  x  100  =  5  3,  per  cent.  ash. 

Resume  : 

Moisture 60 

Coke  and  volatile  matters 94 . 10 

Ash..  5.30 


100.00 

75.  Coke  is  tested  the  same  as  coal,  except- 
ing- that  about  30gr  should,  be  used  for  the  moisture 
test,  and  it  may  be  dried  at  a  hig-her  tempera- 
ture, 140°C,  and  only  half  a  gr  is  used  for  the 
ash.  100  per  cent.,  minus  the  sum  -of  the  water 
and  ash,  is  called  the  "combustible  matter," 
instead  of  "coke  and  volatile  matters,"  as 
above. 


76.  Fuel  OH.  The  most  important  and 
most  usual  test  of  oil  is  the  determination  of  its 
specific  gravity.  This  is  done  with*jBeaume's 
hydrometer  for  liquids  lig-hter  than  water  (Pig*. 
45),  the  reading-  of  the  hydrometer  being-  com-  Fig.  45. 


n6 


COAL,    COKE    AND    FUEL   OIL. 


pared  with    the    corresponding-  specific  gravity   by   use 
of  the  following-  table : 

TABLE  B. 

Comparison  of  Degrees  on  the  Beaume  Hydrominor  Spindle  with 
Specific  Gravity. 


Degree  . 

Sp.  G. 

Degree  . 

Sp.  G. 

Degree. 

Sp.  G. 

Degree 

Sp.  G. 

10 

1  000 

24 

.913 

38 

.839 

52 

.777 

11 

.993 

25 

.907 

39 

.834 

53 

773 

12 

.986 

26 

.901 

40 

.830 

54 

.768 

13 

.980 

27 

.896 

41 

825 

55 

.764 

14 

973 

28 

.890 

42 

820 

56 

.760 

15 

.967 

29 

.885 

43 

.816 

57 

.757 

16 

.960 

30 

.880 

44 

811 

58 

.753 

17 

.954 

31 

874 

45 

807 

59 

.749 

18 

948 

32 

.869 

46 

.802 

60 

.745 

19 

.942 

33 

.864 

47 

.798 

65 

726 

20 

.936 

34 

.859 

48 

.794 

70 

.709 

21 

.930 

35 

.854 

49 

.789 

80 

.676 

22 

.924 

36 

.849 

50 

.785 

90 

.646 

23 

.918 

37 

.844 

51 

.781 

100 

619 

The  above  table  is  calculated  for  a  temperature  of 
15°C.  or  59°P.,  and  all  observations  should  be  made  at 
this  temperature.  However,  a  difference  of  2  Farenheit 
degrees  either  way  does  not  introduce  an  error  of  con- 
sequence. 

The  specific  gravity  may  also  be  taken  with  a 
pycnometer,  a  specific  gravity  hydrometer,  or  any  of  the 
specific  gravity  balances  for  liquids.  The  Beaume 
hydrometer  is  preferable  to  other  methods  in  the  fact 
that  it  is  g-enerally  used  in  oil  commerce. 

Water  is  so  seldom  present  in  oil  that  it  is  determined 
only  qualitatively.  A  quantity  of  oil  of  known  specific 
gravity  is  poured  over  fused  calcium  chloride,  which  may 
be  contained  in  a  basket  of  wire  screen.  The  specific 
gravity  of  the  treated  oil  is  then  taken,  and  if  it  is  less 


COAL,  COKE  AND  FUEL  OIL.  117 

than  before,  water  was  present  and  was  taken  up  by  the 
calcium  chloride.  A  simpler  method,  but  one  requiring 
more  time,  is  to  fill  a  glass  tube  (about  3-16  of  an  inch 
in  diameter  and  12  inches  long)  with  the  oil,  having  one 
end  closed.  By  standing  the  tube  on  the  closed  end,  if 
any  water  is  present  it  will  separate  from  the  oil  in  a  few 
days  and  go  to  the  bottom. 

Ashes.  Evaporate  5gr  of  the  oil  in  a  porcelain  dish 
until  it  is  sufficiently  dry  for  ignition.  This  may  be 
done  first  on  a  water  bath  and  then  on  an  asbestos  plate 
over  a  direct  flame.  Burn  carefully  until  a  completely 
incinerated  ash  is  obtained.  The  weight  of  the  ash  re- 
maining divided  by  5  and  multiplied  by  100  will  give  the 
per  cent. 

Example: 

Weight  of  dish  and  oil 26 . 370gr 

Weight  of  dish 21 . 370*r 

Weight  of  oil  used S.OOOgr 

Weight  of  dish  and  ash 21.373gr 

Weight  of  dish , 21 . 370gr 

Weight  of  ash    003gr 

.003-^5=  .0006.         .0006x100=  .06  per  cent. 

Flash  and  Fire  Test.  The  temperature  at  which  the 
development  of  inflammable  gases  begins  is  called  the 
flash  point  of  oil,  and  the  degree  of  temperature  where 
the  oil  itself  will  burn  is  called  the  fire-point.  Both 
may  be  tested  at  the  same  time,  as  the  test  for  the  latter 
is  only  a  continuation  of  the  test  for  the  former.  These 
determinations  can  be  made  with  sufficiently  accurate  re- 
sults by  the  simple  apparatus  mentioned  as  follows,  but 


Il8  COAL,  COKE  AND  FUEL  OIL. 

for  absolutely  exact  determinations  the  Saybolt  or  some 
other  apparatus  with  electric  sparks  should  be  used: 

A  porcelain  crucible  holding"  about  90CC  is  nearly  tilled 
with  the  oil  and  placed  on  the  ring-  of  a  lamp-stand,  over 
a  sheet  (4  inches  square)  of  asbestos,  about  V%  of  an 
inch  thick.  A  chemical  Farenheit  thermometer,  sup- 
ported by  a  clamp  above,  is  inserted  in  the  oil  so  that  the 
mercury  bulb  is  just  covered.  Heat  is  applied,  the  flame 
being1  just  large  enough  to  cause  a  rise  of  2  or  3  degrees 
in  temperature  a  minute.  At  the  end  of  every  minute 
after  heat  is  applied  a  "test-flame"  is  passed  over  the 
oil.  The  "test-flame"  should  be  as  small  as  possible, 
but  a  match  generally  has  to  be  used  in  sugar  factory 
laboratories.  The  temperature  degree,  when  the  passing 
of  the  "test-flame"  first  causes  a  flash  of  light,  is  re- 
corded as  the  flash  point,  and  the  degree  when  the  oil 
ignites  permanently  is  recorded  as  the  fire  point.  In 
crude  petroleum  the  latter  is  from  6  to  15°  higher  than 
the  former. 


CHAPTER  XI. 
ANALYSIS  OF  BONEBLACK*. 

77.  The  Outward  Appearance  of  boneblack  often  in- 
dicates  its   usefulness    in    sugar    manufacture.      Well- 
burned  boneblack  should  be  of  a  deep   black  color  and 
show  a  faint  velvety  cracking".    If  it  is  sufficiently  porous 
each  broken  piece  when  held  to  the  tongue  should  pro- 
duce a  slight  suction.     If  the  boneblack  is  boiled  with 
caustic  potash  or  caustic  sodium   and  then  allowed  to 
settle,  the  supernatent  fluid  should  be  completely  color- 
less; a  brown  coloring  is  caused  by  undestroyed  organic 
substance  (glue,  gristle). 

78.  The  Analysis  of  Boneblack  generally  comprises 
determinations  of  moisture,  calcium  carbonate,  calcium 
sulphate,  calcium  sulphide,  organic  matter  and  decolo- 
rizing power.      The  composition  of   good  boneblack  is 
about  as  follows: 

Moisture 7  per  cent 

Carbon 7  to    8  " 

Sand  and  Clay : 2  to    4 

Calcium  Phosphate 70  to  75  '  * 

Calcium  Carbonate 7  to    8  " 

Calcium  Sulphate 2  to. 3  " 

Phosphates  of  Iron  and  Aluminum   .5  {t 

Magnesium  Phosphate 6  to    1  " 

79.  Moisture. — The  boneblack  is  coarsely  powdered 
and  10*r  are  dried  at   120°C.      It   usually   takes  several 
hours  for  the  sample  to  become  thoroughly  dry.     The 
weight  lost  is  moisture;    divided  by  10  and  multiplied  by 
100  will  give  the  percentage. 

*  Adapted  from  "I^eitfaden  fur  Zuckerfabrichemiker"  by  Dr.  E.  Preuss. 


120  ANALYSIS   OF   BONEBLACK. 

80.  Carbon,  Sand  and  Clay. —  Into  a  porcelain  dish 
put  10gr  of  the  finely  pulverized  sample  and  add  some 
water.     Then  digest  with  50CC   of   concentrated  hydro- 
chloric acid,  the  dish  being-  covered  with  a  glass  plate  to 
prevent  loss  by  spirting".     Filter  through  a  dry  filter,  the 
weight  of  which  is  known,   and   wash  with  hot  water 
until  the  acid  reaction  of   the  filtrate  has  disappeared 
(test  with  litmus  paper).      The  filter  and  contents  are 
dried  and  weighed,  the  total,  minus  the  weight  of  the 
paper,    being    carbon,    sand  and    clay,    the    remaining 
constituents  of  the  boneblack  having  been  taken  out  by 
the  digestion  with  acid.       After  weighing,  incinerate  in 
a  tared  crucible.     The  residue  is  sand  and  clay,  and  this 
weight  subtracted  from  the  weight  of  the  contents  of  the 
filter  paper  will  give  the  weight  of  the  carbon.     The  re- 
results  obtained,  divided  by  10  and  multiplied  by  100, 
will  give  the  percentage. 

The  filtrate  from  the  above,  made  up  to  a  liter,  serves 
in  the  determination  of  calcium  sulphate,  calcium  sul- 
phide, oxide  of  iron  and  aluminum,  lime,  magnesia  and 
phosphoric  acid. 

81.  Calcium    Sulphate.— Measure  off    200CC   of    the 
above  filtrate,  corresponding  to  2gr  of  the  original  sub- 
stance, and  heat  to  nearly  boiling  point.       Add  a  slight 
excess  of  barium  chloride,  precipitating  barium  sulphate, 
and  filter  as  in  59.       After  burning  and  weighing,  the 
resulting  weight  is  divided  by  2  to  give  the  weight  in 
lgr,  and  is  then  multiplied  by  the  factor  .5832  to  give  the 
weight  in  calcium  sulphate.      Multiplying  by  100  will 
give  the  per  cent. 

In  factories  and  refineries  having  "boneblack  houses" 
the  examination  of  the  boneblack  as  to  its  contents  of 


ANALYSIS   OF   BONEBLACK.  121 

calcium  sulphate  and  its  removal  by  treatment  with  soda 
solution  is  very  important.  The  gypsum  strongly  in- 
fluences the  crystallization  of  sugar  and  in  the  re-burn- 
ing* of  the  boneblack  leads  to  considerable  losses,  the 
calcium  sulphate  being*  reduced  to  calcium  sulphide,  and 
carbon  escapes  in  the  form  of  carbon  monoxide  gas. 

CaSO4  -H 4C  =  CaS  +  4CO. 

The  calcium  sulphide  thus  formed  has  an  injurious 
effect,  as  in  contact  with  metals  it  produces  colored  com- 
binations which  lessen  the  value  of  the  product.  There- 
fore it  is  also  necessary  to  determine  the  calcium  sul- 
phide. 

82.  Calcium  Sulphide.  Place  5*r  of  the  finely  pow- 
dered sample  in  a  porcelain  dish  and  moisten  with  water. 
The  dish  is  now  put  on  a  water  bath  and  lO**  of  fuming 
nitric  acid  gradually  added.  Heat  for  half  an  hour,  fre- 
quently stirring-,  and  then  add  10CC  of  concentrated  hy- 
drochloric acid  a  few  drops  at  a  time.  The  mixture  is 
heated  20  minutes  longer  and  is  stirred  as  before.  By 
this  means  all  the  sulphur  is  oxidized  and  TUCKER  pre- 
fers the  method  to  all  others.  At  the  end  of  the  heating- 
dilute  to  about  100CC  by  the  addition  of  water  and  filter. 
Heat  the  filtrate  nearly  to  boiling  and  precipitate  with 
barium  chloride,  filter,  burn,  and  weigh  in  the  usual 
manner.  The  weight  of  barium  sulphate  is  divided  by  5 
to  give  the  weight  in  l*r  and  is  multiplied  by  .  1374  and 
100  to  give  the  per  cent,  of  sulphur.  The  per  cent,  of 
the  calcium  sulphate  obtained  in  the  above  paragraph 
multiplied  by  .2356  will  give  the  per  cent,  of  sulphur  in 
the  boneblack  which  is  in  combination  as  gypsum,  and 
this  subtracted  from  the  total  sulphur  as  just  determined 


122  ANALYSIS   OF   BONEBLACK. 

will  give  the  sulphur  in  combination  as  calcium  sulphide. 
Multiply  the  per  cent,  sulphur  by  2.248  to  obtain  the  per 
cent,  of  calcium  sulphide. 

83.  Sugar   Contents. — Powder   50gr   and   boil   with 
100CC  of  water  for  20  minutes.     Let  the  mixture   settle 
and  filter  off  the  clear  fluid.     Add  water  to  the  sediment 
and  boil  again,  filtering'  as  before,  and  repeat  the  opera- 
tion.    The  sediment   is   now   placed   on    the   filter  and 
thoroug-hly  washed  with  boiling  water.      Evaporate  the 
combined  filtrates  to  about  75  or  SOCC  and  rinse  into  a 
100-110CC  flask.     When  cool  make  up  to  the  mark  and 
determine   the   sug-ar   volumetrically.      The    result    ob- 
tained is  divided  by  50  as  50^r  were  used. 

84.  Calcium  Carbonate. — During  filtration  the  bone- 
black  takes  up  calcium  carbonate  from  the  juices,  and 
the  pores  are  gradually  closed.       This  excess  is  removed 
down  to  7  per  cent,  (not  below  this,  as  it  would  affect  the 
calcium  phosphate  present  as  a  normal  constituent)  by 
washing-  the  boneblack  with  hydrochloric  acid,  and  the 
amount  of  acid  necessary  is  calculated  from  the  determi- 
nation of  calcium  carbonate  present.      In  making-  this 
estimation,  Scheibler's  apparatus,   shown  in  Fig-.  46,  is 
g-enerally  used.      The   execution   of  the   analysis  is   as 
follows  : 

Put  the  weighed  quantity  (1.7gr)  of  finely  pulverized 
boneblack  into  the  developing-  bottle  A;  fill  the  caout- 
chouc cylinder  S  about  half-full  with  concentrated  hy- 
drochloric acid  (1.12  sp.  g.)  and  place  it  carefully,  with 
pincers  and  without  spilling,  into  the  bottle  A.  Fill  by 
pressure  on  the  bulb  W  of  Woulff's  bottle  E  (which  con- 
tains water),  the  two  communicating  tubes  DandC,  with 
water,  until  the  fluid  in  C  is  at  zero,  the  water  in  D 


OF  THK 

UNIVERSITY 


Fig.  46. 


2 


ANALYSIS   OF   BONEBLACK.  125 

being1  on  the  same  level.  The  pinch-cock  q  is  opened 
during  the  filling,  to  allow  air  to  escape.  Care  must  be 
taken  not  to  overflow  any  of  the  water  into  B.  for  the 
apparatus  would  have  to  be  taken  apart  and  dried. 

Now  place  the  glass  stopper,  fastened  to  the  rubber 
tube  r  upon  the  developing*  vessel  A  (greasing*  the  joint 
with  tallow),  and  close  the  pinch-cock  q.  Hold  the 
bottle  A  at  the  upper  end  with  two  fingers,  to  avoid 
warming  it,  and  incline  it  so  that  the  hydrochloric  acid 
is  poured  over  the  substance.  The  carbonic  acid  devel- 
oped rises  through  r  into  the  rubber  bulb  K  and  crowds 
out  an  equivalent  amount  of  air  in  B  which,  in  turn,  re- 
duces the  water  in  C-  The  pinch-cock  p  is  opened, 
whenever  necessary,  to  make  the  level  of  the  fluid  in  C 
and  D  equal.  A  is  shaken  to  generate  the  lost  gas  and 
when  no  further  development  occurs,  the  volume  of 
water  in-  C  is  read  and  the  temperature  observed.  From 
these  the  percentage  of  calcium  carbonate  is  determined 
by  the  accompanying  Table  C. 

Example  : 

The  volume  of  gas  generated  is  11.2  (see  n  m  Fig. 
45)  at  a  temperature  of  21°.  By  referring  to  the  table 
we  find  that  11  volumes  at  21°  is  10.74  and  2  volumes  is 
1.80.  Dividing  the  latter  by  10  gives  .18  for  the  .2  of  a 
volume.  Therefore,  the  per  cent,  of  CaCO  is 

10.74  +  .18  =  10.92  per  cent. 

As  boneblack  often  contains  caustic  lime  it  is  advisa- 
ble, before  making  the  analysis  as  above,  to  dampen  the 
sample  with  ammonium  carbonate  and  evaporate  to  dry- 
ness.  An  error  is  introduced  when  calcium  sulphide  is 
present  as  sulphuretted  hydrogen  is  developed  as  well  as 
carbonic  acid.  TUCKER  avoids  this  error  by  adding  a 


00  M  O  iO  M  r-t 


~ 

ON 


I 

«Sj 

UJ    I 

-J    *o 


OJ 


I 

a 


ANALYSIS   OF   BONEBLACK.  I  27 

small  amount  of  copper  chloride  to  the  hydrochloric  acid 
used. 

Considering-  7  per  cent,  as  the  normal  amount  of  cal- 
cium carbonate,  the  quantity  of  acid  of  any  strength 
necessary  to  remove  the  excess  may  be  calculated  by  the 
use  of  Scheibler's  Table  D. 

Example  : 

The  calcium  carbonate  obtained  in  the  above  sample 
is  10.92,  an  excess  of  3. 92  "over  the  normal  7  per  cent. 
The  amount  of  acid,  say  1.175  sp.  g.  or  21.5  Beaume, 
necessary  to  reduce  this  excess  is  determined  by  referring 
to  the  table  as  follows: 

3.      parts  of  calcium  carbonate  =  6.3112  parts  of  acid. 

0.9  «  "  "          =1.8934 

0.02  "  "  "          =     .0409  " 

3.92  parts  of  calcium  carbonate  =  8.2455  parts  of  acid. 

In  a  ton  of  2,000  Ibs.  of  boneblack  having  the  above 
percentage  of  CaCO3  would  take 

2,000  x  8  2455  per  cent.  =  164.91  Ibs. 
of  acid  of  1.175  sp.  g.  to  remove  the  excess. 

85.  Decolorizing  Power. — Equal  amounts  of  a  mo- 
lasses solution  are  treated,  during  the  same  length  of 
time,  with  equal  parts  of  a  new  efficacious  char  and  the 
boneblack  to  be  analyzed.  From  the  difference  of  color 
of  the  two  filtered  solutions  the  efficacy  of  the  boneblack 
can  be  approximately  determined.  Stammer's  color  in- 
strument should  be  used  where  frequent  analyses  of 
boneblack  are  made. 


CHAPTER  XII. 
ANALYSIS  OF  CHIMNEY  GASES. 

86.  Smoke  Gases  consist  largely  of  carbonic  acid, 
oxygen,  nitrogen  and  carbon  monoxide  gas;  marsh  gas, 
sulphuric  acid,  etc.,  are  found  only  in  small  quantities. 

The  analysis  is  most  easily  made  by  use  of  an  appa- 
ratus which  removes  each  constituent  by  absorption,  the 
percentage  of  each  being  determined  by  the  diminution 
of  volume  of  the  sample  used.  The  apparatus  most 
commonly  used  is  Orsat's,  or  a  modification  of  it. 

87.  Preparation    of    Reagents. — Concentrated    solu- 
tions  of   caustic    potash,    pyrogallic    acid    and    copper 
chloride  are  used  for  the  absorption  of  the  most  impor- 
tant gases — carbonic  acid,  oxygen  and  carbon  monoxide. 
The  caustic    potash    solution    is    made    by    diluting    1 
part  of  potassium  hydrate  with  2  parts  of  water.     An 
alkaline  solution  of  pyrogallic  acid  is  made  by  mixing  1 
volume  of  a  25  per  cent,  solution  of  pyrogallic  acid  with 
a  60  per  cent,  solution  of  potassium  hydrate.     The  solu- 
tion for  absorbing  carbonic  oxide  is  made  by  shaking  a 
mixture  of  equal  parts  of    a  saturated  ammonium  chlo- 
ride solution  and  ammonia  with  copper  shavings,  until 
the  fluid  has  turned  dark  blue. 

88.  Orsat's  Apparatus   (Fig.  47)  consists  of   a  gas 
measuring-tube  A  which,  in  the  lower  narrow  portion, 
has  a  scale  divided  into  half -cubic  centimeters  from  0  to 
40,  and  is  surrounded  by  a  glass  jacket  filled  with  water, 
to  avoid  deviations  of  temperature.       The  lower  end  of 
the  gas  burette  A  is  connected  with  the  aspirator  bot- 
tle E  by  a  rubber  tube.     By  raising  and  lowering  this 


ANALYSIS   OF   CHIMNEY   GASES. 


bottle,  containing-  water,  the  gas  burette  can  be  filled 
with  water  and  emptied,  thereby  drawing-  the  g-as  mix- 
ture to  A,  or  pressing-  the  g-as  therein  contained  into  the 
upper  conduit  pipe.  The  upper  portion  of  A  leads  into 
a  giass  tube  at  rig-ht  ang-les  to  it,  which  has  three  rests 
furnished  with  the  cocks  a,  b,  c;  these  cocks  make  corn- 


Fig.  47 

munication  possible  with  the  absorption  vessels  B,  C,  D, 
each  of  which  is  ag-ain  connected  with  a  reservoir  of  like 
shape  (B',  C,  D'.) 

The  absorption  vessels  are  filled  with  many  narrow 
tubes  of  glass,  in  order  to  give  the  absorption  liquids  as 
larg-e  a  surface  as  possible.  (In  the  diagram  only  a  few 
are  denoted  to  give  clearness.)  The  horizontal  tube 
previously  mentioned  has  at  its  end  a  tube  bent  like  a  U 


130  ANALYSIS   OF   CHIMNEY   GASES. 

(e),  the  shanks  of  which  are  filled  with  cotton  for  the 
filtration  of  the  smoke  gases  entering-  through  f,  while 
in  the  curve  of  the  same  there  is  a  layer  of  water.  Be- 
tween the  curve  of  the  horizontal  tube  and  the  cock  c 
there  is  a  Winkler's  three-way-cock,  by  which  the  tube, 
and  thereby  the  entire  apparatus,  can  be  connected  with 
the  tube  f,  leading-  to  the  gas  line,  as  well  as  with  the 
air-injector  i.  The  injector  is  for  the  purpose  of  pump- 
ing- out  the  air  in  the  tube  f  before  using  the  apparatus, 
being  done  by  blowing  into  the  mouthpiece  g. 

89.  Execution  of  the  Test.  —  First,  the  absorption 
liquids  from  the  reservoirs  in  the  rear  must  be  brought 
to  B,  C,  D,  which  is  done  as  follows:  Close  the  cocks 
a,  b,  c;  fill  the  burette  A  with  water  by  placing  the 
three-way-cock  into  such  a  position  that  A  communicates 
with  the  outer  air.  Lift  the  bottle  C  and  close  the  cock 
d  against  the  atmosphere;  then  lower  the  bottle  E  again, 
open  cock  a,  whereby  the  water  flows  from  the  burette  to 
E  and  an  air-diluted  space  is  formed  in  B.  The  air- 
pressure  then  forces  the  absorption  liquid  from  the  res- 
ervoir to  B,  and  a  must  be  closed  at  the  moment  when 
the  fluid  reaches  exactly  to  the  mark.  In  the  same  manner 
the  vessels  C  and  D  are  filled.  By  means  of  the  injector 
i  the  air  must  be  pumped  out  of  the  tubes,  which  is  done 
in  the  manner  above  mentioned.  Now,  the  tube  e  must 
be  connected  by  f  with  the  gas-line  and  the  three-way- 
cock  must  be  placed  in  such  a  position  that  the  filled 
burette  A  is  connected  with  the  atmosphere  and  the  gas- 
line.  By  raising  and  lowering  the  bottle  E  repeatedly, 
the  burette  A  and  the  tubes  are  rinsed  with  smoke-gas 
until  the  operator  is  sure  that  the  air  is  completely 
crowded  out. 


ANALYSIS   OF   CHIMNEY   GASES.  131 

After  the  water  in  A  is  set  in  again  to  the  mark,  the 
three-way-cock  is  turned  so  that  A  as  well  as  the  g-as- 
line  is  closed  ag-ainst  the  atmosphere  and  the  smoke-g-as 
line  communicates  only  with  the  burette  A.  By  opening- 
the  pinch-cock  in  front  of  E  and  lowering-  the  aspirator 
bottle,  the  burette  is  filled  with  the  g-as  to  be  analyzed  to 
a  little  below  the  mark  (100ccm).  Whereupon  the  same 
is  closed  ag-ainst  the  atmosphere  and  the  g-as-line.  Now 
set  in  the  fluid  exactly  to  the  zero  point  and  allow  the 
excess  of  pressure  to  escape  into  the  atmosphere  by 
opening-  once  quickly  D.  The  cock  a  is  opened,  and  by 
raising  the  bottle  E,  the  g-as  is  pressed  into  B,  which 
contains  caustic  potash.  Repeat  this  operation  several 
times  and  finally  hold  E  at  such  a  heig-ht  that  the  level 
of  the  water  is  equal  to  the  mark  on  B.  Cock  a  is  then 
closed  and  the  heig-ht  of  the  liquid  in  A  is  read  off. 
Difference  to  100  will  give  the  percentag-e  of  carbonic 
acid  in  the  g-as.  In  the  remainder  of  the  g-as  mixture, 
determine  as  above,  one  after  another,  the  contents  of 
free  oxyg-en  and  carbon  oxide  g"as.  The  g-as  volume 
which  remains  is  calculated  as  nitrog-en. 

The  absorption  liquids  can  be  saved  from  spoiling-  by 
pouring-  some  solar  oil  into  the  rear  reservoirs,  thus  ex- 
cluding- the  atmospheric  air.  If  thus  protected,  the 
fluids  will  suffice  for  several  hundred  analyses. 

9O.  Franke's  Gas  Burette  (Fig-.  48}  may  also  be 
used  for  smoke-g-as  analysis.  It  has  an  advantag-e  over 
the  Orsat's  apparatus,  in  being-  more  simple  in  con- 
struction. 

The  burette  consists  of  the  measuring-  space  M,  the 
lower  cylindric  part  of  which  is  graduated  into  whole 
and  half  cubic  centimeters,  and  the  space  R  serving-  for 


132 


ANALYSIS   OF   CHIMNEY   GASES. 


holding-  the  absorption  liquids.  The  connection  be- 
tween the  two  can  be  produced  by  the  glass-cock  r,  which 
has  a  wide  double  boring-.  The  measuring-  space  M,  be- 
tween the  two  cocks  m  and  r,  holds  ex- 
actly lOO00"1.  Into  a  socket  at  the 
lower  end  of  the  space  R  the  glass 
cock  a  can  be  placed  to  close  it  air- 
tight. 

91.  The  Execution  of  the  Analysis 
with  Franke's  burette  is  accomplished 
in  the  following-  manner  :  Fill  the  bu- 
rette completely  with  water  (space  M 
and  R),  connect  the  point  b  with  the 
g-as-line  and  let  so  much  of  the  g-as 
enter  that  the  space  R  is  about  half- 
filled.  Then  close  the  cocks  m  and  r 
and  remove  the  water  in  R,  so  as  to 
fill  R  completely  with  the  absorption 
liquid. 

In  order  to  exclude  the  air  com- 
pletely, pour  into  R  so  much  of  the 
reag-ent  that  even  the  funnel-shaped 
widening-  is  partly  filled  with  it.  Now 
"  m  place  the  opened  cock  a  carefully  into 
the  socket,  so  that  from  the  bor- 
ing- as  well  as  from  the  point  below 
the  cock  the  air  is  completely  excluded. 
The  excess  of  the  absorption  liquid 
accumulated  in  the  widening-  is  poured 
Fig.  48.  back  into  the  storing--bottle  after  cock 

a  is  closed. 

In  order  to   put  the   g-as-volume   in    the   measuring- 
space  under  atmospheric  pressure,  raise  for  a  moment  the 


ANALYSIS   OF   CHIMNEY   GASES.  133 

cock  m.  The  absorption  of  the  constituent  to  be  deter- 
mined in  the  gas  mixture  is  accomplished  easily  by  open- 
ing- the  cock  r,  so  that  the  reagent  enters  into  the 
opening-  space.  By  shaking  the  burette,  this  operation 
can  be  hastened.  After  this  is  done,  place  the  burette 
on  the  point  a  and  wait  until  the  absorption  liquid  has 
completely  returned  into  R  from  the  measuring  space. 
The  space  R  must  then  be  filled  again  completely  to  the 
boring  of  the  cock  r.  Now  take  out  the  cock  a,  pour  out 
the  reagent,  and  replace  the  same  with  water,  with  the 
precaution  that  now,  even  in  the  point,  no  air  remains. 
The  whole  burette  is  now  turned  with  the  point  a  down- 
ward, placed  into  a  high  cylinder  filled  with  water,  and 
below  water  the  cocks  a  and  r  are  opened.  On  account 
of  the  air-diluted  space,  produced  by  the  absorption,  the 
water  will  now  rise  to  a  certain  height  into  the  measur- 
ing space.  The  reading  off  of  the  percentage  contents 
is  done  after  an  equal  level  of  water  is  produced  inside 
and  outside.  In  order  to  determine  the  constituents  yet 
left  in  the  remainder  of  the  gas-mixture,  remove  the 
water  in  the  measuring  space  by  means  of  a  suction 
bottle  before  the  reagent  is  put  in  ;  especially  must  this 
be  done  by  the  determining  of  carbonic  oxide  gas.  The 
burette  with  the  water  must  be  shaken  several  times  be- 
fore reading  off  the  height,  in  order  to  let  the  remains  of 
ammonia,  which  always  evaporate,  be  absorbed  by  the 
water. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

ANALYSIS  OF  FERTILIZERS.* 

92.  Artificial  Fertilizers  for  beet  fields  generally  con- 
tain principally  either  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  or  pot- 
ash,   although    some     fertilizers    contain    two    of    the 
constituents   and   others   all  three.      In   analysis,    it   is 
usual  to  make  only  the  determination  of  the  constituents 
upon  which  the  value  of  the  fertilizer  depends.     For  ex- 
ample, in  nitrate  of  soda,  a  very  common  fertilizer,  it  is 
necessary  to  estimate  only  the  nitrogen,  and  in  super- 
phosphates, the  soluble  form  of  phosphoric  acid  is  de- 
termined.     The  methods  outlined  in  the  following  para- 
graphs may  be  used  in  the  analysis  of  all  fertilizers. 

The  refuse  lime  from  sugar  factories  is  of  great 
value  as  a  fertilizer,  as  it  returns  the  calcium  and  mag- 
nesium which  is  taken  from  the  soil.  As  it  is  often  of 
interest  to  know  the  other  elements  present  in  the  refuse, 
a  full  method  of  analysis  is  given  in  the  next  chapter. 

93.  The  Sample  is  prepared  by  mixing  it  thoroughly, 
after  which  it  is  ground  in  a  mortar  fine  enough  to  pass 
through    a   25-mesh    sieve.     The   operations   should   be 
performed  rapidly,  to  prevent  loss  or  gain  of  moisture. 

94.  Moisture  determinations  should  be  made  in  all 
fertilizer  analysis.      Weigh  out  2gr  and  dry  at  100°.     For 
potash  salts,   sodium    nitrate   and  ammonium  sulphate 
fertilizers,  the  sample  may  be  dried  at  130°.     The  drying 
usually  takes  from  3   to   5   hours.     Determine   the  per 
cent,  moisture  in  the  usual  way. 

*  The  preparation  of  the  reagents  used  in  these  analysis  will  be  found  in 
Part  III.  The  preparation  of  all  but  baryta  solution  is  given  according  to  the 
methods  adapted  by  the  Association  of  Official  Agricultural  Chemists.  See  Bul- 
letin No.  76,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agticulture,  Division  of  Chemistry.  Para- 
graph 94  is  in  pat  t  (a  and  b)  adapted  from  this  report,  also  Paragraph  96. 


ANALYSIS   OF   FERTILIZERS.  135 

95.  Phosphoric  Acid  is  in  two  forms,  soluble  and  in- 
soluble, the  soluble  being-  the  form  of  value  as  a  fertil- 
izer. In  contact  with  certain  basic  hydroxides  and 
water  some  of  the  soluble  acid  will  become  insoluble 
and  is  said  to  be  "reverted."  A  determination  of  the 
reverted  acid  is  usually  unnecessary.  In  analysis  of 
phosphoric  acid,  calculation  is  based  on  the  formula  of 
the  anhydride— P2O5. 

O)  The  Total  Phosphoric  Acid  is  estimated  as  fol- 
lows :  The  2gr  dried  as  above  are  ignited  in  a  crucible  to 
burn  away  organic  matter,  and  are  then  dissolved  in  hy- 
drochloric acid.  After  solution,  transfer  to  a  200CC  flask, 
cool,  make  up  to  the  mark,  shake  well  and  pass  through 
a  dry  filter  into  a  beaker  or  flask.  Measure  off  half  of 
the  solution,  corresponding  to  lgr  of  the  sample,  and 
neutralize  with  ammonia.  If  the  solution  is  not  clear, 
add  a  few  drops  of  nitric  acid.  The  addition  of  about 
10gr  of  dry  ammonium  nitrate  will  assist  the  precipita- 
tion which  follows.  Heat  to  65°C  and  add  molybdic 
solution.  About  5CC  of  the  reagent  must  be  used  for 
every  milligramme  of  P2O5  present  in  the  solution  tested. 
Stir  and  keep  covered  1  hour  at  65°C.  Filter  and  wash 
the  precipitate  with  a  solution  containing  15gr  of  ammo- 
nium nitrate  in  100CC  of  water,  to  which  about  3  to  5CC  of 
molybdic  solution  has  been  added,  and  the  whole 
slightly  acidified  with  nitric  acid.  Test  the  filtrate  for 
phosphoric  acid  by  additional  molybdic  solution.  The 
precipitate  on  the  filter  is  now  dissolved  with  ammonia 
and  the  filter  washed  with  a  hot  mixture  of  3  parts  of 
water  and  1  part  of  ammonia.  Nearly  neutralize  with 
hydrochloric  acid,  cool,  *and  add  magnesia  mixture 
slowly,  preferably  with  a  burette,  while  stirring  con- 


136  ANALYSIS   OF   FERTILIZERS. 

stantly.  About  10CC  of  the  mixture  is  necessary  for 
every  milligramme  of  P2O  in  the  solution  tested.  After 
a  few  minutes  add  about  30CC  of  ammonia  and  let  stand 
for  twelve  hours.  Filter,  wash  with  a  5  per  cent,  ammo- 
nia solution,  dry  and  ignite  to  whiteness,  or  to  a  grayish 
white.  Cool  and  weig-h,  the  weight  being  multiplied  by 
.6396  to  give  the  weig-h  t  phosphoric  acid  (P2O5).  Divid- 
ing- this  by  100  will  give  the  per  cent. 

W  Soluble  Phosphoric  Acid.  -Place  2gr  of  the 
sample  upon  a  filter  and  wash  with  water  into  a  200CC 
flask.  Use  successive  small  portions  of  water,  allowing 
each  portion  to  pass  throug-h  before  adding  more.  When 
the  flask  is  filled  to  the  mark,  measure  off  100CC  and  test 
as  under  the  above  paragraph. 

(0  Insoluble  Phosphoric  Acid  may  be  determined  by 
difference,  subtracting  the  soluble  acid  from  the  total. 
This  will  also  include  any  reverted  acid  which  may  be 
present,  but  the  error  may  be  overlooked. 

96.  Nitrogen  is  determined  according-  to  GUNNING'S 
method,  which  does  not  include  the  nitrogen  of  nitrates 
(97).  Weig-h  out  3.0§r  of  the  sample  and  transfer  to  a 
500CC  Kjeldahl  digestion  flask*.  In  a  sample  containing- 
much  nitrog-en,  a  less  amount  of  the  substance  may  be 
used  for  analysis.  Add  to  the  flask  10gr  of  pulverized 
potassium  sulphate  and  about  20CC  of  pure  sulphuric 
acid  (free  from  nitrates)  with  a  sp.  g.  of  1.84.  Fix  the 
flask  in  an  inclined  position  and  heat  gradually,  until  all 
frothing-  ceases;  then  boil  until  the  liquid  is  colorless,  or 
nearly  so.  Cool  and  wash  into  a  distillation  flask  of 
about  550CC  capacity,  with  about  200CC  of  water.  Add  a 

*  Kjeldahl  flasks  are  pear-shaped  and  round-bottomed,  with  a  long,  tapering 
neck.    They  should  be  made  of  Jena  or  of  the  best  Bohemian  glass. 


ANALYSIS   OF   FERTILIZERS. 


137 


few  drops  of  phenol  and  then  a  saturated  solution  of 
sodium  hydroxide  until  the  reaction  is  strongly  alkaline. 
The  flask  is  now  fitted  with  a  rubber  stopper  and  a  bulb 
tube,  as  in  Fig-.  49  (A  and  a),  the  latter  being-  con- 
nected with  the  condenser  B  by  a  rubber  tube.  Another 
bulb  tube  b  is  attached  to  the  condensor  at  d  and  ex- 


Fig.  49. 

tends  to  nearly  the  bottom  of  the  Erlenmeyer  flask  C, 
which  contains  20CC  of  a  normal  acid.  Half  normal  acid 
may  be  used  or,  if  only  a  small  amount  of  nitrog-en  is 
present  in  the  sample,  tenth-normal  is  to  be  recom- 
mended. Heat  is  now  applied,  and  the  nitrog-en  present 
in  A  is  distilled  as  ammonia,  and  passes  over  and  is 
absorbed  in  C-  The  operation  is  completed  when  150CC 
of  the  distillate  has  been  collected.  The  time  required 
is  from  three-quarters  of  an  hour  to  an  hour  and  a  half 


138  ANALYSIS   OF   FERTILIZERS. 

The  contents  of  C  are  now  cooled  and  titrated  with 
caustic  baryta  water  solution*.  This  solution  must  be  of 
a  known  streng-th,  which  is  determined  by  finding-  how 
many  cc  of  it  are  necessary  to  neutralize  a  certain 
amount  of  normal  acid.  Tincture  of  litmus  is  used  as 
an  indicator  and  the  baryta  solution  is  added  from  a 
burette  until  the  color  just  turns  red.  The  quantity  of 
the  solution  used  is  measured,  and  from  this  the  amount 
of  nitrog-en  is  calculated  as  shown  in  the  following- 

Example  /f 

It  takes  50.1CC  of  baryta  solution  to  neutralize  the 
20CC  of  normal  acid,  used  with  the  distillate,  from  lgr  of 
a  sample.  The  baryta  solution  is  of  such  streng-th  that 
20CC  of  normal  acid  requires  99.9CC  of  the  solution  for 
neutralization.  As  one  liter  of  normal  acid  corresponds 
to  14.01gr  of  nitrog-en,  20CC  corresponds  to  0.2802gr. 
Therefore,  99.9CC  of  baryta  solution  corresponds  to 
0.2802gr  of  nitrog-en  and  lcc  corresponds  to  0.002799gr. 

Now,  as  50.1CC  of  the  baryta  solution  are  used,  the 
nitrog-en  denoted  is 

50.1  x  0.002799  =  0.140238'. 

As   20cc  of  Normal  Acid  =  0.28020gr  Nitrogen 
and  SO.  lcc  Caustic  Baryta  =  0.14023gr        «< 

There  remain 0  13997gr 

Which  is,  in  round  numbers,  14  per  cent,  of  the  lgr  used. 

97.  Total  /Nitrogen,  including-  the  nitrog-en  of 
nitrates,  is  determined  as  follows  :  To  the  substance  in 
the  dig-estion  flask,  as  in  96,  add  30CC  of  a  salicylic  acid 

*  Any  standard  alkali  solution  may  be  used  instead.  The  Association  of 
Official  Agricultural  Chemists  recommend  ammonia,  a  one-tenth  solution,  hav- 
ing 1.7051  gr.  of  ammonia  to  the  liter. 

t  Fruhling  and  Schulz. 


ANALYSIS   OF   FERTILIZERS.  139 

mixture,  which  is  prepared  by  mixing-  30CC  of  concen- 
trated sulphuric  acid  with  lgr  of  commercial  salicylic 
acid.  The  mixing"  requires  about  10  minutes.  Then  add 
5«r  of  sodium  hyposulphite  and  10»r  of  potassium  sul- 
phate. Heat  and  then  distill  and  determine  the  nitrogen, 
as  in  96. 

98.  Potash.  Boil*  10*r  of  the  sample  with  from 
250CC  to  300CC  of  water  for  half  an  hour.  Make  the  hot 
solution  alkaline  by  the  addition  of  ammonia  and  pre- 
cipitate the  calcium  present  with  ammonium  oxalate. 
Cool,  dilute  to  500CC  and  filter  through  a  dry  filter.  In 
the  analysis  of  muriate  of  potash,  the  mixture  is  diluted 
without  the  addition  of  ammonia  and  the  precipitation 
of  calcium.  Heat  50CC  of  the  filtrate,  corresponding-^  to 
lgr  of  the  sample,  to  boiling-  point  and  add,  a  drop  at  a 
time,  and  with  constant  stirring,  sufficient  barium  chlo- 
ride to  precipitate  the  sulphuric  acid  present.  Without 
filtering,  add  in  the  same  manner  baryta  water  in  slig-ht 
excess.  Filter  while  hot  and  wash  well.  Heat  the 
filtrate  nearly  to  boiling  and  precipitate  the  barium  by 
the  addition  of  ammonium  carbonate,  previously  adding- 
a  few  drops  of  ammonia.  Filter  and  wash  thoroug-hly. 
Evaporate  the  filtrate  to  dryness  and  burn  carefully  over 
a  low  flame  until  all  ammonium  salts  have  been  expelled. 
Dissolve  the  residue  in  hot  water  and  filter.  Acidify  the 
Ultrate  with  a  few  drops  of  hydrochloric  acid,  in  a  porce- 
lain dish.  Add  an  excess  of  a  concentrated  solution  of 
platinic  chloride  (from  5  to  10CC)  and  evaporate  nearly  to 
dryness,  keeping  the  matter  in  the  water-bath  below 
boiling-  point.  Add  80  per  cent,  alcohol  (sp.g-.  0.8645)  to 

*  Fertilizers  which  contain  much  organic  matter,  the  10  gr.  are  ignited  at  a 
gentle  heat,  with  the  addition  of  enough  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  to  saturate 
the  sample,  before  being  boiled  with  water. 


140  ANALYSIS   OF   FERTILIZERS. 

the  dish  and  let  stand  for  some  time  ;  then  filter  off  the 
alcoholic  solution.  Repeat  this  operation  until  the  resi- 
due in  the  dish  consists  of  small  reddish-yellow  octa- 
hedra,  which  is  the  appearance  of  potassium  platinic 
chloride.  Bring-  this  residue  upon  the  filter  and  wash 
with  alcohol.  Dry  the  filter  and  contents  until  the  alco- 
hol has  volatalized,  and  then  carefully  transfer  the  con- 
tents to*  a  watch  glass.  The  small  amount  of  the 
precipitate  which  cannot  be  removed  is  washed  out  with 
hot  water.  The  filtrate  is  evaporated  to  dryness  in  a 
weighed  porcelain  dish,  the  contents  of  the  watch  glass 
being1  also  added.  Dry  for  30  minutes  at  100°,  cool,  and 
weig-h.  The  weig-ht,  less  the  weig^ht  of  the  dish,  is  po- 
tassium platinic  chloride.  Multiplying-  by  .1931  will 
g-ive  the  weig-ht  of  potassium  oxide  (K2O),  and  as  lsr 
was  used  for  the  analysis,  the  percentag-e  is  obtained  by 
multiplying-  by  100. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 
ANALYSIS  OF  REFUSE  LIME. 

99.  Refuse    Lime*    analysis   consists  of  determina- 
tions of  water,  sugar,   organic  matter,   silica,   iron  and 
aluminum    oxides,    calcium    oxide,    magnesium    oxide, 
caustic  lime,  phosphoric  acid,  sulphuric  acid  and  carbonic 
acid. 

100.  The  Sample  is   a   carefully   selected  average, 
small    samples    being   taken    from    several    places  and 
mixed  together.     As  the  substance  usually  contains  too 
much   moisture   to  handle   easily,   about  20gr  are  dried, 
powdered  as  in  93,   and  preserved  in  an  air-tight  jar. 
The  determinations  are  made  with  the  dry  substance, 
and,    by  taking"   into   account   the   per   cent,    of    water 
found  in  the  moisture  determination,  are  figured  into  the 
original  substance  (see  11O). 

101.  Water  is  determined  by  weighing  out  2gr  and 
drying  at  100°.      The  weight  lost,  divided  by  2  and  mul- 
tiplied by  100  will  give  the  per  cent,  of  water. 

102.  Sugar. — Of  the  original  substance,  take  100gr 
and  treat  as  described  in  83,  determining  the  per  cent, 
sugar  volumetrically. 

103.  Organic  Matter.— Burn  2}^grof  the  dry  sub- 
stance over  a  low  flame,   heating  not  quite  to  redness. 
Cool   and   weigh.      The   loss   is   put   down   as   organic 
matter.     The  per  cent,    of  dry   substance   is   found   by 
dividing  by  2.5  and  multiplying  by  100. 

*  Refuse  lime,  as  referred  to  here,  includes  not  only  the  filter  press  cakes  but 
any  other  refuse  from  the  factory  which  is  disposed  of  in  the  same  pile  or  reser- 
voir with  the  filler  press  cakes. 


142  ANALYSIS   OF   REFUSK 

104.  Silica* — After    burning-    away     the     organic 
matter  from  2/^gr,  as  in  the  above  paragraph,   the  re- 
mainder   is   dissolved   in    hydrochloric   acid,    with    the 
addition  of  heat,  and  is  filtered  into  a  250CC  flask.      The 
substance    remaining-   on   the    filter    is   washed,    dried, 
weighed,  and  percentage  on  dry  substance  figured  as  in 
67.     This  is  usually  recorded  as  silica,  but  might  be 
more  properly  written  "Insoluble  in  Hydrochloric  Acid," 
as  other  substances  are  often  in  excess  of  silica. 

105.  Iron,  Aluminum,  Calcium  and  Magnesium  oxides 
are  determined  from  the  filtrate  in  the  above  paragraph 
as  described  in  68,  69  and    7O,  the  percentage  being- 
found  on  dry  substance. 

106.  Caustic  Lime  is  found  by  titrating  lgr  with  a 
normal  acid,  as  described  in  35a.       The  CaO  found  by 
this  method  is  that  which  is  uncombined,  not  being  in 
the  form  of  a  salt.       Either  the  dry  or  the  original  sub- 
stance may  be  taken  for  this  determination. 

107.  Phosphoric  Acid  is  estimated  by  taking  2gr  of 
the  dry  substance  and  proceeding  as  described  in  95a. 

108.  Sulphuric    Acid.— From  the    250CC  filtrate    of 
1O4  take  50CC  and  determine  the  sulphuric  acid  (SO3)  as 
in  71. 

109.  Carbonic  Acid  is  determined  by  means  of  the 
alkalimeter  described  in  54,   2gr  of    the  dry  substance 
being  taken.     The  weight  lost,  divided  by  2  and  multi- 
plied by  100,  will  give  the  per  cent. 

11 0.  The    Percentages    which  are   figured   on   dry 
substance   are   calculated   to   the  original  substance  by 
multiplying  the  percentage  found  by  the  part  which  the 


ANALYSIS   OF   REFUSE   LIME.  143 

dry  substance  is  to  the  original  substance.  For  example, 
if  the  water  is  43  per  cent.  ,  the  dry  substance  is  100  —  43 
or  57  per  cent.,  and  if  the  percentage  of  phosphoric  acid 
to  the  dry  substance  is  1.58,  then  1.58x.57  is  equal  to 
the  percentage  of  phosphoric  acid  to  the  original  sub- 
stance, or  .909. 

111.  The  Figured  Analysis.  Water,  sugar,  organic 
matter,  silica,  iron  and  aluminum  oxides  and  caustic  lime 
are  recorded  as  found.  From  the  calcium  oxide  found 
by  precipitation  with  ammonium  oxalate,  the  caustic 
lime  is  subtracted  to  give  the  calcium  oxide  in  combina- 
tion with  acids.  Phosphoric  acid  and  sulphuric  acid  are 
combined  with  calcium  oxide,  and  carbonic  acid  is  com- 
bined with  the  remainder  of  the  calcium  oxide  and  with 
the  magnesium  oxide.  The  combining  is  effected,  as 
usual,  with  factors.  For  example,  let  the  following  rep- 
resent the  actual  analysis  of  a  sample  of  refuse  lime  : 

Water  ......................................................  43.00 

Organic  Matter  ............................................     6  .  79 

Sugar  .....................................................     1  .  14 

Silica  ......................................................     5  .  28 

Iron  and  Aluminum  Oxides  ..................................  75 

Caustic  Lime  (CaO)  .....................  ".  ..................     4.05 

Total  Calcium  Oxide  ........................................  25  .  75 

Carbonic  Acid  (CO2)  .......................................   16.55 

Phosphoric  Acid  (P2O5)  ......................................  90 

Sulphuric  Acid  (SO3)  .......................................  28 

Magnesium  Oxide  ...........................................  47 

The  acids  phosphoric,  sulphuric  and  carbonic  are  first 
combined  with  calcium  oxide: 

.90  (P2O5)  x  2.  1827  =  1.96,  percent,  calcium  phosphate. 
.28  (SO3)  x  1.6996  =    .48,  per  cent,  calcium  sulphate. 

For  CaP2O8  1.06  per  cent.  CaO  is  used,  for  CaSO4 
0.20  per  cent,  and  the  caustic  lime  is  4.05  per  cent.  The 


OF  THH 


144  ANALYSIS   OF   REFUSE   LIME. 

total  calcium  oxide  is  25.75,  hence  the  amount  to  be  com- 
bined with  carbonic  acid  is 

25.75— (1.06  +  .20  +  4  05  =5.31)  or  20.44  percent. 
20.44  x  1  7856  =  36  50,  per  cent,  calcium  carbonate. 

The  amount  of  carbonic  acid  used  is  16.06,  leaving 
0.52  per  cent,  for  combination  with  magnesium  oxide. 
0.52  x  1.9091  =  .99,  per  cent,  magnesium  carbonate. 

This  is  exactly  sufficient  to  combine  with  all  the  mag- 
nesium, for 

0.47  (MgO)  x  2  1  =  .99,  per  cent,  magnesium  carbonate. 

Resume : 

Water 42 . 00 

Organic  Matter 6.79 

Sugar 1.14 

Silica 5  28 

Iron  and  Aluminum  Oxides 0 . 75 

Caustic  Lime  (CaO) 4 . 05 

Calcium  Phosphate 1 .96 

Calcium  Sulphate 1 . .  , 0 . 48 

Calcium  Carbonate 36.50 

Magnesium  Carbonate 0 . 99 

Undetermined 0 . 06 

100.00 


CHAPTER  XV. 
ANALYSIS  OF  SYRUP  OR  MASSECUITE  ASH. 

112.  The  Sample.  A  sufficient  amount  of  the  sub- 
stance should  be  taken  to  yield  from  1.5  to  2gr  of  ash. 
The  amount  necessary  may  be  determined  by  incinera- 
tion with  sulphuric  acid  as  in  34b-  The  portion  taken 
is  concentrated  as  much  as  possible  by  evaporation,  and 
is  then  charred  at  a  moderate  heat  until  no  more  gases 
escape.  The  charcoal  is  then  powdered  and  digested 
with  hot  water.  The  solution,  but  none  of  the  charcoal, 
being-  filtered  into  a  porcelain  dish.  This  is  done  re- 
peatedly until  all  the  soluble  matter  is  extracted.  The 
sediment  is  then  burned  completely  to  ashes,  cooled, 
treated  with  a  solution  of  ammonium  carbonate  and 
burned  again,  moderately,  until  all  ammonia  is  driven 
off.  It  is  now  united  with  the  filtrate  containing  the 
soluble  matter.  This  is  evaporated  to  dryness  in  a 
weighed  platinum  dish,  heated  moderately,  cooled  and 
weighed,  the  weight  in  excess  of  the  dish  being  the  total 
ashes.  This  weight  divided  by  the  weight  of  the  origi- 
nal substance  taken  and  multiplied  by  100,  will  give  the 
per  cent.  In  the  determinations  which  follow  the  per 
cent,  is  figured  both  on  the  ash  and  on  the  original  sub- 
stance. The  former  is  obtained  according  to  119,  and 
the  latter  is  determined  by  multiplying  whatever  the 
per  cent,  of  the  constituent  is  to  the  ash  by  the  per  cent, 
which  the  ash  is  to  the  original  substance.  For  example, 
if  one  of  the  constituents  of  the  ash  is  12  per  cent,  of  the 
ash  and  the  ash  is  10  per  cent,  of  the  original  substance, 
the  per  cent,  of  the  constituent  to  the  original  substance 
is  found  by  multiplying  .12  by  .10,  which  gives  .0120  or 
1.2  per  cent. 


146  ANALYSIS   OF   SYRUP   OR    MASSECUITE    ASH. 

113.  Carbonic  Acid.  —  All  the  ashes  obtained  as 
above  are  transferred  to  an  alkalimeter  and  carbonic  acid 
determined  as  in 


114.  Silica  —  Magnesium  Oxide.   The  contents  of  the 
alkalimeter  are  filtered  into  a  250CC  flask,  the  sediment  on 
the  filter  paper  being"  silica,  and  50CC  of   the  contents  of 
the  flask,  after  being*  made  up  to  the  mark,  are  used  for 
the  determination   of  iron   and   aluminum,  calcium  and 
magnesium   oxides,    the   estimation   of   each   being"  the 
same  as  in  limestone  analysis  (see  119  for  calculation 
of  weig-hings). 

115.  Sulphuric  Acid  is  also  determined  as  in  lime- 
stone analysis  by  using  50CC  of  the  filtrate  as  above. 

116.  Sodium  and  Potassium   Oxides.—  The   total  al- 
kali chlorides  are  determined  as  in  6O,  50CC  of  the  250cC 
filtrate    being  used.     The  residue  remaining-  after  this 
determination  is  then  treated  with  platinic  chloride  and 
the   potassium   oxide   found   as  described  in  98.     The 
sodium  oxide  is  estimated  by  difference. 

117.  Phosphoric  Acid.—  Another  50CC  portion  of  the 
filtrate  above  is  used  for  the  phosphoric  acid  determina- 
tion, which  is  made  according  to  94a. 

118.  Chlorine.  —  A  new  and  smaller  portion  of  the 
substance  to  be  analyzed  is  taken  for  this  determination. 
It  is  charred  at  a  moderate  heat,  and  the  sediment  which 
remains  is  moistened  and  pulverized,   then  being  rinsed 
into  a  250CC  flask  and  boiled  a  short  time  with  water. 
After  cooling-,  without  further  consideration  of  the  sus- 
pended coal  particles,  make  up  to  the  mark  with  water, 
shake  well,   and   filter  through  a  dry  filter.     Half  the 
filtrate  is  used   for   the   chlorine   estimation,    which   is 


ANALYSIS   OF   SYRUP   OR    MASSECUITE   ASH.  147 

made  by  precipitation  with  silver  nitrate,  as  in  5 1 .  On 
account  of  the  strong-  alkaline  condition  of  the  ash 
extract,  it  should  be  neutralized  by  the  addition  of  nitric 
acid. 

119.  Calculation  of  Weighings.— In  analyses  where  a 
certain  number  of  grammes  are  made  up  to  a  certain 
number  of  cubic  centimeters,  an  aliquot  portion  repre- 
sents either  a  gramme  or  such  a  fraction  of  a  gramme, 
that  the  calculation  of  weig'hing's  can  be  made  by  a 
simple  multiplication.  But  in  ash  analysis  the  whole 
ash  is  made  up  to  250CC,  no  matter  what  its  weig"ht  ma}T 
be,  for  if  a  certain  definite  portion  were  weig-hed  off  it 
mig-ht  not  be  an  accurate  averag-e  of  the  whole.  Conse- 
quently, each  weight  must  be  fig-ured  upon  the  whole 
weig-ht  of  the  ash  used.  The  weig-hts  of  silica  and  car- 
bonic acid  are  each  divided  by  the  weig-ht  of  the  sub- 
stance used,  and  multiplied  by  100  to  give  the  per  cent. 
For  example,  if  1.83gr  of  ash  are  used  and  the  carbonic 
acid  lost  weig-hs  .020&r,  the  per  cent,  of  carbonic  acid  is 

.020  H—  1  83  x  100  =  1.09. 

In  determinations  made  from  50CC  of  the  250CC  filtrate, 
each  weig-ht  is  multiplied  by  5  to  make  it  correspond  to 
the  original  substance,  and  is  then  divided  by  the  weig-ht 
of  the  ash  and  multiplied  by  100  to  give  the  per  cent. 
For  example,  the  weig-ht  of  calcium  carbonate  is  .0096gr 
which  is  multiplied  by  the  factor  .56,  to  give  the  weig-ht 
of  calcium  oxide;  .0096  x  .56  =  .0054«r.  This  is  multi- 
plied by  5  to  give  the  weig-ht  in  250CC,  or  in  the  whole 
original  substance;  .0054  x  5  =  .027*r.  Taking-  1.83,  as 
above,  for  the  weig-ht  of  ash  used,  the  per  cent,  of 
calcium  oxide  is 

.027  —    1  83  x  100  =  1 . 48. 


148  ANALYSIS   OF   SYRUP   OR   MASSECUITK    ASH. 

The  weight  of  chlorine  is  multiplied  by  2,  divided  by 
the  weight  of  the  ash  used  and  multiplied  by  100  to  give 
the  per  cent. 

1 2O.  The  Figured  Analysis. — As  the  combination  of 
acids  and  bases  is  almost  always  the  same,  the  figured 
analysis  will  be  illustrated  by  an  example.  Let  it  be 
considered  that  the  following  is  the  result  of  the  actual 
analysis  of  a  molasses  ash,  only  the  percentages  relative 
to  the  ash  being  given  : 

Carbonic  Acid  (CO2) 21 . 00 

Silica  (Si02)  0.21 

Iron  and  Aluminum  Oxides 0 . 93 

Calcium  Oxide 1 . 48 

Magnesium  Oxide 0 . 26 

Sulphuric  Acid  (SO3) 5.32 

Sodium  Oxide 6.90 

Potassium  Oxide 50.88 

Phosphoric  Acid  (P2O5) 0.50 

Chlorine 11.00 

(/)  The  first  operation  is  to  combine  all  the  chlo- 
rine and  phosphoric  acid  with  potassium  oxide.  These 
and  all  other  combinations  are  effected  by  the  use  of 
factors. 

110    (Cl)    x  2.1035  =23.14,  per  cent,  potassium  chloride. 
0  5  (P2O5)x2  9903  =   1.50,  per  cent,  potassium  phosphate. 

12.14  per  cent,  of  potassium  oxide  is  used  in  forming 
the  chloride  and  1  per  cent,  in  forming  the  phosphat^, 
making  a  total  of  13.14  per  cent.,  and  leaving  37.74  per 
cent.  (50.88 — 13.14)  for  other  combinations. 

( 2 )  All  sodium  oxide  is  combined  with  carbonic 
acid. 

.69  (Na2O)  x  1.7067  =  11.78,  per  cent,  sodium  carbonate. 
4.88  per  cent,  carbonic  acid  is  used. 


ANALYSIS   OF   SYRUP   OR    MASSECUITE    ASH.  149 

( j  )  The  mag-nesium  oxide  is  combined  equally  with 
sulphuric  acid  and  carbonic  acid. 

0  13  (half  MgO)  x  3.0015  =  0.39,  per  cent,  magnesium  sulphate. 
0.13  (half  MgO)  x  2.1  =  0.27,  per  cent,  magnesium  carbonate. 
0  26  per  cent,  sulphuric  acid  and  0.14  per  cent,  carbonic  acid  are 
used. 

(4)  The  calcium  oxide  is  combined  equally  with  sul- 
phuric acid  and  carbonic  acid. 

0.74  (half  CaO)  x  2.4294  =  1.80,  per  cent,  calcium  sulphate. 
0.74  (half  CaO)  xl  7856  =  1.32,  per  cent,  calcium  carbonate. 
1.04  per  cent,  sulphuric  acid  and  0.58  per  cent,  carbonic  acid 
are  used. 

(5  )  The  potassium  oxide  remaining-  in  (1)  is  com- 
bined with  the  remaining-  sulphuric  and  carbonic  acids. 

The  sulphuric  acid  used  in  (3)  and  (4)  amounts  to 
(0.26  +  1.04)  1.30  per  cent.,  leaving-  4.02  (5.32-1.30)  for 
combination  with  potassium  oxide. 

4.02  x  2.1773  =  8  75,  per  cent   potassium  sulphate. 

The  potassium  oxide  used  is  4.73  per  cent.,  leaving- 
33.01  (37.74-4.73)  for  combination  with  carbonic  acid. 

The  carbonic  acid  used  in  (2),  (3)  and  (4)  amounts  to 
5.60  per  cent.  (4.88  4-  0.14  -h  0.58),  leaving-  15.40  per  cent. 
(21.0-5.60)  for  combination  with  potassium  oxide. 

33.01  (remaining  K2O)  x  1.4668  =  48.41,  per  cent,  potassium 
carbonate. 

The  carbonic  acid  used  in  this  combination  is  15.40, 
exactly  the  amount  remaining-.  In  analyses  where, com- 
binations do  not  come  out  correctly,  the  constituent  in 
excess  is  set  down  as  described  in  72. 

The  above  fig-ures  are  each  multiplied  by  the  per  cent, 
the  ash  is  to  the  original  substance  to  give  the  respective 
per  cent,  of  each  constituent  to  the  original  substance. 


150 


ANALYSIS   OF   SYRUP   OR   MASSECUITE    ASH. 


If,  for  example,  the  ash  is   11  per  cent,   of  the  molasses 
used,  the  whole  analysis  may  be  recorded  as  follows  : 


Per  Cent,  of 

Ash. 

Per  Cent,  of 

Molasses. 

Silica 

0.21 

.023 

Iron  and  Aluminum  Oxides  

093 

.102 

Calcium  Carbonate  

1.32 

.145 

Calcium  Sulphate  

1  80 

.198 

Magnesium  Carbonate 

0.27 

.029 

Magnesium  Sulphate       .    . 

039 

.042 

Sodium  Carbonate          

11  78 

1.296 

Potassium  Chloride 

23.14 

2545 

Potassium  Phosphate  

1.50 

.165 

Potassium  Sulphate  

8.75 

.962 

Potassium  Carbonate  

48  71 

5.358 

Undetermined  

1.30 

.143 

10000 

11.008 

CHAPTER  XVI. 
MISCELLANEOUS  ANALYSES. 

121.  Beet  Seed. — The  value  of  beet  seed  is  determ- 
ined by  the  test  for  per  cent,  moisture,  the  test  of  non- 
seed  and  the  germination  test.  If  a  number  of  sacks  of 
the  same  seed  are  to  be  tested,  take  a  small  sample  from 
each  one,  inserting-  a  sampler  into  the  sack.  Make  one 
large  sample  from  the  smaller  ones  and  mix  very  thor- 
oughly. The  moisture  is  found  by  weighing  out  10  or 
20gr  and  drying-  at  95°C,  until  there  is  no  further  loss  of 
water.  The  weight  lost  divided  by  the  weig-ht  used  will 
give  the  per  cent,  moisture. 

Weig-h  10gr  of  the  average  sample  and  shake  in  a 
sieve  freeing  the  seeds  from  all  dust.  Discard  any  foreign 
matter  that  is  not  seed,  such  as  dried  leaves  and  the 
blossoms  which  come  from  the  top  of  the  seed  stem. 
The  latter  look  like  small  dead  seeds.  Weigh  the  sample 
again,  and  the  weight  lost  by  the  above  operations 
divided  by  10  (the  weight  used)  will  give  the  per  cent, 
of  non-seed. 

From  the  pure  seed  obtained  by  the  non-seed  test 
weigh  out  2gr  for  the  germination  test  and  count  the 
number  of  seeds  in  this  weighing.  Plant  these  seeds  an 
inch  apart,  in  squares,  a  half  inch  deep  in  very  light 
soil,  mostly  sand.  For  this  purpose  use  a  box  (Fig.  50) 
about  ten  inches  wide,  about  25  inches  long  and  not  less 
than  2  nor  more  than  3  inches  deep.  These  are  inside 
measurements.  The  box  is  fitted  with  nails  an  inch 
apart  and  threads  are  stretched  between  the  opposite 
nails  on  the  sides  and  also  on  the  ends.  The  seeds  are 


152 


MISCELLANEOUS   ANALYSES. 


planted  where  the  crossing's  are  made  by  these  string's, 
so  the  operator  knows  where  to  look  for  the  plants  to 
come  up. 


Fig  50. 

The  g-ermination  test  lasts  fifteen  days  from  the  time 
of  planting-.  During-  this  period  keep  the  soil  moist  on 
top  all  the  time,  watering  every  morning-  and  when  nec- 
essary during-  the  day.  Use  the  water  from  a  bucket 
kept  standing-  near  the  g-ermination  box,  for  it  must  be 
of  the  same  temperature  as  the  room.  Keep  the  box  in  a 
hot  house  having-  a  temperature  of  from  75  to  85°  Far. , 
and  g-ive  it  all  the  sun  possible.  Make  a  record  every 
day  at  the  same  hour  of  the  number  of  seeds  which  have 
sprouted  up  to  that  time,  and  also  of  the  number  which 
have  come  up  and  died.  At  the  end  of  the  fifteen  days 
count  the  total  number  of  plants  (g-erms)  living-,  also  the 
number  that  have  died,  fig-uring-  the  number  of  g-erms 
per  seed.  Also  count  the  number  of  seeds  having-  1 
g-erm,  2  g-erms,  3  g-erms,  etc.  From  the  total  number  of 
g-erms  is  fig-ured  the  monetary  value  of  the  seed.  It  is 
usual  to  consider  a  2gr  sample  having-  150  g-erminations 


MISCELLANEOUS   ANALYSES.  153 

as  the  standard,  and  a  sample  having-  more  or  less  germs 
has  a  greater  or  less  value  in  proportion.  Some  fixed 
value,  e.  g.,  20  cents  per  kilo,  is  taken  as  a  standard  and 
all  germination  tests  are  fig-ured  on  this  basis. 

Example  : 

A  test  shows  140  g-erminations.  Its  value  on  the 
basis  of  20  cents  per  kilo  for  standard  seed  fig-ured  by 
the  proportion  : 

150  :  140  :  :  20  : x 
x  =  18  67,  the  value  in  cents  per  kilo. 


be 
'•§ 

O 
O 


^J 


g 

£ 
oj 

1/3 

•  iH 

bjo 
£ 

2 

0) 


Si2 

a!  O.CJ 


TJ-  r<5  00 
rH  Tf  rH  ?\ 


rH  O  0  O  O 


LO  vO 

5s 


rH  ^-  rH 
^  T(-  v^ 


(^  Tj-  U)   ON  ^t 


t^  X  d  1^ 

rH  C^  VO  d 


-  1^.  00  vO 

rH  rH  O 


^O  00  1>  f  O  Tf 

rH  rH  \O 


M  CO  Cq  rH  CO 


<*         O  O  rH  O  rH 


O   OO  O  O 


o  o  o  o  o 


Date 
anted. 


eeds 
ampl 


oS 


o  oo  ro 


6. 


MISCELLANEOUS   ANALYSES.  155 

122.  Sulphur. — In  the  examination  of  sulphur  for 
decolorizing  purposes  it  is  usual  to  determine  the  water, 
organic  matter  and  ash,  the  sum  of  these  subtracted  from 
100  giving  the  per  cent,  of  sulphur.  Weigh  out  10*r  of 
the  coarsely  powdered  sample  in  a  porcelain  crucible  for 
the  moisture  determination  and  dry  at  100°C.  Weigh 
and  estimate  the  per  cent,  of  water  lost.  In  this  de- 
termination the  weighings  must  be  made  as  quickly  as 
possible,  as  the  sample  readily  absorbs  moisture  from 
the  air.  After  determining  the  water,  heat  the  crucible 
and  contents  over  a  low  flame  and  light  the  sulphur 
with  a  match.  The  crucible  is  now  removed  from  the 
flame  and  placed  where  the  fumes  will  readily  go  off  in 
the  air.  When  the  sulphur  is  all  burned,  cool  the  cruci- 
ble in  a  dessicator  and  weigh,  recording  the  weight. 
The  contents  now  consist  of  the  ash  and  the  organic 
matter.  The  latter  is  burned  away  over  a  moderate 
flame  and  the  crucible  cooled  and  weighed  again.  The 
difference  between  this  weight  and  the  one  just  recorded, 
is  the  weight  of  organic  matter  and  is  calculated  into 
percentage,  and  the  difference  between  the  last  weighing 
and  the  weight  of  the  crucible  is  the  ash,  which  is  also 
calculated  into  percentage.  As  before  stated,  the  sum 
of  the  per  cent,  moisture,  organic  matter  and  ash  is  sub- 
tracted from  100  to  give  the  per  cent,  sulphur. 

Sulphur  can  usually  be  obtained  in  a  very  pure  state, 
the  following  being  two  sample  analyses  : 

Per  Cent.  Moisture 10  .17 

Per  Cent.  Organic  Matter 38  .30 

PerCent.  Ash 03  .01 

Per  Cent.  Sulphur 99.49  99.52 

100.00     100.00 


15  MISCELLANEOUS   ANALYSES. 

123*  Anhydrous  Ammonia* — In  factories  having 
Steffen's  plants,  where  the  cooling-  is  done  artificially  by 
a  refrigerating  machine,  it  is  of  considerable  importance 
to  determine  the  quality  of  anhydrous  ammonia  used. 
HENRY  FAUROT,  in  an  article  in  Cassier's  Magazine, 
gives  the  determination  of  boiling  point  as  the  principal 
test.  The  lower  the  boiling-  point,  the  freer  the  ammo- 
nia is  of  impurities.  Also,  the  lower  the  temperature  at 
which  the  ammonia  expands,  the  cheaper  it  is  to  use. 
MR.  FAUROT  determines  the  boiling-  point  as  follows  : 
"Draw  off  (from  the  ammonia  cylinder)  about  six  to 
eig-ht  ounces  of  liquid  ammonia  into  a  cylindrical- 
shaped  g-lass  or  chemical  beaker.  Place  this  on  a  wet 
plate  or  surround  it  with  water,  and  when  it  boils  insert 
into  it  the  bulb  only  of  a  special  low  standard  chemical 
thermometer,  reading-  off  throug-h  the  walls  of  the  glass, 
and  observing  the  temperature  when  the  mercury 
remains  stationary,  as  the  boiling  point.  Commercially 
pure  liquid  ammonia  should  boil  at  not  higher  than  28.6 
degrees  below  zero  F ;  lower  temperature  denotes  purer 
ammonia,  while  a  less  pure  ammonia  boils  at  a  higher 
temperature.  In  testing  for  the  boiling  point,  the  ther- 
mometer should  be  held  as  stationary  as  possible,  and 
not  moved  about  in  the  liquid." 

It  is  of  importance  to  determine  whether  inflammable 
gases  are  present  in  the  ammonia,  as  they  are  the  prin- 
cipal impurities,  and  are  especially  harmful  in  the  fact 
that  they  decompose  the  ammonia  and  lessen  its  refrig- 
erating power.  The  following  qualitative  test  is  suffi- 
cient: A  short  iron  pipe  is  screwed  into  the  valve  of  the 
ammonia  cylinder  and  is  so  bent  that  the  ammonia  can 
be  discharged  into  the  bottom  of  a  bucket  of  cold  water. 
Submerge  over  the  mouth  of  the  pipe  a  glass  funnel, 


MISCELLANEOUS   ANALYSES.  157 

with  the  end  of  the  stem  tightly  corked.  Allow  the  am- 
monia to  flow  in  a  small  stream  and  the  ammonia  gas 
will  be  absorbed  by  the  water,  while  the  other  gases 
will  rise  to  the  top  of  the  funnel.  If  methane  or  other 
inflammable  gases  are  present,  they  will,  if  released  and 
lighted  with  a  match,  burn  with  a  blue  flame. 

1 24.  Lubricating  Oils*  are  often  adulterated  by  the 
addition  of  low  grade  oils  and  other  matters.  The  ex- 
amination of  the  principal  lubricants  is  conducted  as  fol- 
lows, the  tests  given  being  for  the  most  common 
substances  used  in  adulteration  : 


Castor  Oil. — Dissolve  in  alcohol  and  if  black  poppy 
oil  is  present  it  will  remain  as  a  residue. 

Cocoanut  Oil  should  dissolve  completely  in  cold  ether. 
If  adulterants  are  present,  the  etheral  solution  will  be 
muddy.  The  oil  also  has  a  more  grayish  color  when 
adulterated  than  when  pure.  Mutton  suet,  beef  marrow 
and  other  animal  greases  are  most  commonly  used  for 
adulteration. 

Lard. — Melt  at  a  low  temperature,  and  if  water  is 
present  it  will  separate  from  the  grease.  Digest  the 
lard  with  hot  distilled  water  and  test  with  silver  nitrate 
for  chlorides  (common  salt).  Melt  the  lard  in  warm 
water,  and  if  plaster  of  paris  is  present  it  will  go  to  the 
bottom  in  the  form  of  a  white  powder. 


*Adapted  from  R.  S.  CHRISTIANI. 


158  MISCELLANEOUS   ANALYSES. 

Linseed  OH. — The  oil  if  pure  will  become  a  pale  pink 
if  treated  with  hyponitric  acid  and  dark  yellow  if  treated 
with  ammonia,  giving  a  thick  soap  in  the  latter  case. 

Neatsfoot  Oil. — Test  the  same  as  castor  oil. 
Olive  Oil. — Test  the  same  as  castor  oil. 

Rapeseed  Oil. — Ammonia  gives  a  yellowish  colored 
soap  when  added  to  the  oil  containing-  mustard  and 
whale  oil,  and  a  white  soap  when  the  oil  is  pure.  Chlo- 
rine gas  colors  the  oil  brown  when  it  contains  whale  oil, 
but  if  pure  it  remains  colorless. 

Tallow. — Dissolve  in  ether  and  foreign  substances  will 
remain  as  a  residue.  Test  this  residue  for  starch  by  the 
addition  of  iodine  water,  a  blue  color  indicating-  starch. 
Other  parts  of  the  residue  may  be  tested  in  the  well- 
known  ways  (with  ammonia  and  with  ammonium  oxalate) 
for.  aluminum  and  calcium,  the  former  indicating-  the 
presence  of  kaoline  and  the  latter  marble  dust.  Test 
also  for  sulphuric  acid  with  barium  chloride,  as  barium 
sulphate  is  also  used  as  an  adulterant.  Intermix  a  small 
portion  of  the  tallow  with  half  its  volume  of  dried  and 
powdered  copper  sulphate.  If  water  is  present,  the 
mixture  will  turn  blue  if  the  tallow  is  white,  and  green 
if  the  tallow  is  yellow. 

The  Purity  of  lubricating-  oils  is  often  approximately 
determined  by  taking-  their  specific  gravity  by  means  of 
a  pycnometer  or  with  the  Beaume  hydrometer  (see  76) 
and  comparing-  them  with  the  known  specific  gravities  of 
standard  samples.  If,  in  this  test,  there  is  any  wide  di- 
vergence found,  the  sample  is  assuredly  impure.  The 
following  is  WALUS-TAYLER'S  table  of  specific  gravity 
for  oils : 


MISCELLANEOUS 

TABLE  E. 

Standard  Specific  Gravities  of  Lubricants. 


159 


NAME. 

SP.  G. 

NAME. 

SP.  G. 

Castor 

9611 

Palm  

9680 

Cocoanut 

9202 

Paraffin,  volatile   

.7  to  .865 

Cocoanut  Butter 

8920 

Paraffin,  heavy  

.865  to   9 

Cod  Liver 

917  to    92 

Paraffin,  solid  

.9  to  .93 

Colza 

.9136 

Petroleum 

.8800 

Cotton  Seed 

.9252     i 

Piney  Tallow    

.9260 

Flax 

3  9347 

Rape          

.9136 

Grape  Seed 

.9202 

Rosin  . 

.9900 

Hemp 

9276 

Sperm             .... 

8810 

Lard 

.9380 

Sun-fish  . 

874to  879 

Linseed 

9347 

Sunflower                    «  . 

9262 

Neatsfoot 

.9250 

Tar 

1  2600 

Nut 

.9260 

Turpentine 

.8640 

Olive 

.9176 

Whale 

.911*0.922 

Oxidation  of  Oils. — The  length  of  time  an  oil  is  fit 
for  lubrication  is  tested  by  finding*  how  long  it  takes  to 
oxidize.  NASMYTH  recommends  for  this  a  common  plate 
of  iron  6^  feet  long  by  4  inches  wide,  such  as  may 
always  be  found  in  the  blacksmith  shop  of  a  sugar 
factory.  On  one  surface  are  cut,  with  a  planing  ma- 
chine, a  number  of  parallel  longitudinal  grooves.  One 
end  of  the  plate  is  raised  about  8  inches  higher  than  the 
other  and  equal  small  portions  of  the  different  oils  to  be 
tested  are  poured  into  the  grooves  at  the  upper  end.  The 
distance  each  oil  traverses  down  its  particular  groove  is 
noted,  and  also  the  length  of  time  that  elapses  before 
each  oil  becomes  thickened  by  oxidation  and  ceases  to 
flow.  This  often  takes  several  days. 

Flash  TesU — The  power  of  lubricants  to  resist  over- 
heating in  work  is  determined  by  the  flash  test  described 
in  76.  Animal  and  vegetable  oils  should  not  flash 
under  400°  and  mineral  oils  should  not  flash  under  300°. 


l6o  MISCELLANEOUS   ANALYSES. 

125.  Fluxes  and  Rust  Joints. — It  is  not  at  all  an  in- 
frequent  occurrence    that    a    machinist    comes    to   the 
laboratory  and  asks  for  some  chemical  to  use  as  a  flux  in 
soldering-  or  welding-  certain  metals,   or  for  some  com- 
pound to  use  in  making-  a  rust  joint.     The  following-  is  a 
list  of  fluxes  for  common  metals  ; 

Brass Sal  Ammoniac  Lead Resin  (or  Tallow) 

Copper  Sal  Ammoniac  Lead  and  Tin. Resin  and  Sweet  Oil 

Iron Borax  Zinc  Zinc  Chloride 

Iron  (tinned) Resin 

A  quick-setting-  rust  cement  for  calking-  joints  in  cast- 
iron  pipes,  tanks,  etc.,  is  made  with  1  part  sal  ammoniac, 
2  parts  powdered  sulphur,  and  80  parts  iron  boring's. 
Add  water  and  make  a  thick  paste.  A  better  rust  joint, 
but  one  which  sets  more  slowly,  is  made,  according-  to 
MOLESWORTH,  with  2  parts  sal  ammoniac,  one  part  pow- 
dered sulphur,  and  200  parts  of  iron  borings.  Make  into 
a  thick  paste  with  water. 

126.  Crude  Acids  for  boiling-   out  evaporators  are 
tested  only  for  sp.  g-.,  and  this  is  done  with  a  Beaume 
spindle,  being-  compared  with  Table  II.     The  streng-th 
of  the  acids  increase   with  their  specific  gravity.     The 
accompanying  tables,  F,  G  and  H,  show  the  strength  of 
hydrochloric,    sulphuric   and  nitric  acid    for  the    corre- 
sponding specific  gravity. 

127.  Soda  used  in  boiling  out  multiple  effects  is 
tested   only  for   its  percentage    of    sodium    carbonate. 
Weigh  out  2gr  of  the  sample,  transfer  to  an  alkalimeter 
and   find   the  weight   of   carbonic   acid   lost    (see  52), 
Divide  this  weight  by  2  (the  weight  used)  and  multiply 
by  100  to  obtain  the  percentage  of  carbonic  acid.     This 
percentage  multiplied  by  the   factor   2.4117,  gives   the 
percentage  of  sodium  carbonate. 


MISCELLANEOUS   ANALYSES.  l6l 

Example  : 

Weight  of  alkalitneter  and  soda 75 . 9568r 

Weight  of  same  after  operation  75 . 147gr 

0  809gr 

0.809  ~  2  x  100  =  40.45  per  cent.  CO2. 
40.45  x  2.4117  =  97.55  per  cent,  sodium  carbonate. 


162 


MISCELLANEOUS   ANALYSES. 


TABLE  F. 

Showing  the  strength  of  Hydrochloric  Acid  (Muriatic  Acid)  Solutions 

TEMPERATURE,  153  c. 
[Graham-Otto's  I,ehrb.  d.  Chem.  3  Aufl.  II.  Bd.  1.  Abth.  p.  382.] 


Sp.  Gr. 

HCl. 

Cl. 

Sp.  Gr. 

HCl. 

Cl. 

Sp.  Gr. 

HCl. 

Cl 

1.2000 

40.777 

39.675 

1.1328 

26.913 

26.186 

1.0657 

13.456 

13.094 

1.1982 

40.369 

39.278 

1  .  1308 

26.505 

25  .  789 

1.0637 

13.049 

12.697 

1  1964 

39.961 

38.882 

1  .  1287 

26.098 

25.392 

1.0617 

12.641 

12.300 

1.1946 

39.554 

38.485 

1  .  1267 

25.690 

24.996 

1  .  0597 

12.233 

11.903 

1.1928 

39  .  146 

38.089 

1  .  1247 

25.282 

24.599 

1  .  0577 

11.825 

11.506 

1.1910 

38.738 

37.692 

1  .  1226 

24.874 

24.202 

1  .  0557 

11.418 

11  .  109 

1  1893 

38.330 

37.296 

1  .  1206 

24.466 

23.805 

1  .  0537 

11.010 

10.712 

1.1875 

37.923 

36.900 

1  .  1185 

24.058 

23.408 

1  1.0517 

10.602 

10.316 

1  1857 

37.516 

36.503 

1.1164 

23.650 

23.012 

1  .  0497 

10.194 

9.919 

1.1846 

37.108 

36  .  107 

1  .  1143 

23.242 

22.615 

1  .  0477 

9.786 

9  522 

1.1822 

36.700 

35.707 

1  .  1123 

22.834 

22.218 

1.0457 

9.379 

9.126 

1.1802 

36.292 

35  310 

1  .  1102 

22.426 

21.822 

1.0437 

8.971 

8.729 

1.1782 

35.884 

34.913 

1  .  1082 

22.019 

21.425 

1.0417 

8.563 

8.332 

1.1762 

35.476 

34.517 

1  .  1061 

21.611 

21.028 

1.0397 

8.155 

7.935 

1  1741 

35.068 

34.121 

1  .  1041 

21.203 

20.632 

1.0377 

7.747 

7.538 

1  1721 

34.660 

33.724 

1  .  1020 

20.796 

20.235 

1.0357 

7.340 

7.141 

11701 

34.252 

33.328 

1  .  1000 

20.388 

19.837 

1.0337 

6.932 

6.745 

1  1681 

33.845 

32.931 

1.0980 

19.980 

19  .  440 

1.0318 

6.524 

6.348 

1.1661 

33.437 

32.535 

1.0960 

19.572 

19.044 

1.0298 

6.116 

5.951 

1.1641 

33.029 

32.136 

1.C939 

19.165 

18.647 

1.0279 

5.709 

5.554 

1  1620 

32.621 

31.746 

1.0919 

18.757 

18.250 

1.0259 

5.301 

5.158 

1  1599 

32.213 

31.343 

1.0899 

18  .  349 

17.854 

1.0239 

4.893 

4.762 

11578 

31.805 

30.946 

1.0879 

17.941 

17.457 

1.0220 

4.486 

4.365 

11557 

31.398 

30.550 

1.0859 

17.534 

17.060 

1.0200 

4.078 

3.968 

1  1537 

30.990 

30.153 

1.0838 

17.126 

16.664 

1.0180 

3.670 

3.571 

11515 

30.582 

29.757 

1.0818 

16.718 

16  .  267 

1.0160 

3.262 

3.174 

1  1494 

30.174 

29.361 

1.0798 

16.310 

15  .  870 

1.0140 

2.854 

2.778 

1  1473 

29.767 

28.964 

1.0778 

15.902 

15  .  474 

1  .  0120 

2.447 

2.381 

1  1452 

29.359 

28.567 

1.0758 

15.494 

15  .  077 

1  .  0100 

2.039 

1.984 

1  1431 

28  951 

28.171 

1.0738 

15.087 

14.680 

1.0080 

1.631 

1.588 

1.1410 

28  .  544 

27.772 

1.0718 

14.679 

14.284 

1.0060 

1.124 

1.191 

1  1389 

28.136 

27.376 

1.0697 

14.271 

13.887 

1  .  0040 

0.816 

0.795 

1  1369 

27.728 

26.979 

1.0677 

13.863 

13.490 

1.0020 

0.408 

0.397 

1  1349 

27.321 

26  .  583 

TABLE  G. 

Showing  the  Strength  of  Sulphuric  Acid  of  Different  Densities,  at 
15°  Centigrade. — (Otto's  Table. ) 


Per.  Cent  ol 
H2SO4- 

Specific 
Gravity 

Per  Cent,  of 

so3. 

Per  Cent,  of 
H2S04  . 

Specific 
Gravity 

Per  Cent,   of 
S03. 

100 

1.8426 

81.63 

50 

1.3980 

40.81 

99 

1.8420 

80.81 

49 

1.3866 

40.00 

98 

1.8406 

80.00 

48 

1.3790 

39.18 

97 

1.8400 

79.18 

47 

1.3700 

38.36 

96 

1.8384 

78.36 

46 

1.3610 

37.55 

95 

1.8376 

77.55 

45 

1.3510 

36.73 

94 

1.8356 

7673 

44 

1  .  3420 

35.82 

93 

1  .  8340 

7591 

43 

1.3330 

35.10 

92 

1  .  8310 

75  10 

42 

1.3240 

34.28 

91 

1.8270 

7428 

41 

1.3150 

33.47 

90 

1.8220 

73.47 

40 

1.3060 

32.65 

89 

1.8100 

7265 

39 

.2976 

31.83 

88 

1.8090 

7183 

38 

.2890 

31.02 

87 

1  .  8020 

7102 

37 

.2810 

30.20 

86 

1.7940 

70  10 

36 

.2720 

29.38 

85 

1.7860 

69.38 

35 

.2640 

28.57 

84 

1.7770 

68.57 

34 

.2560 

27.75 

83 

1  .  7670 

67  75 

33 

.2476 

26.94 

82 

1  .  7560 

6694 

32 

.2390 

26.12 

81 

1  .  7450 

66.12 

31 

.2310 

25.30 

80 

1.7340 

6530 

30 

1.2230 

24.49 

79 

1.7220 

64.48 

29 

1.2150 

23.67 

78 

1.7100 

6367 

28 

1.2066 

22.85 

77 

1.6980 

6285 

27 

1  .  1980 

22.03 

76 

1.6860 

62  04 

26 

1.1900 

21.22 

75 

1.6750 

6122 

25 

1  .  1820 

20.40 

74 

1.6630 

6040 

24 

1  .  1740 

19.58 

73 

1.6510 

5959 

23 

1  .  1670 

18.77 

72 

1.6390 

5877 

22 

.1590 

17.95 

71 

1.6270 

57  95 

21 

.1516 

17.14 

-     70 

1.6150 

57  14 

20 

.1440 

16.32 

69 

1.6040 

5632 

19 

.1360 

15.51 

68 

1.5920 

5559 

18 

.1290 

14.69 

67 

1.5800 

5469 

17 

.1210 

13.87 

66 

1.5860 

53.87 

16 

.1136 

13.06 

65 

1  .  5570 

5305 

15 

.  1060  ' 

12.24 

64 

1.5450 

5222 

14 

.0980 

11.42 

63 

1.5340 

5142 

13 

.0910 

10.61 

62 

1.5230 

5061 

12 

.0830 

9.79 

61 

1.5120 

49  79 

11 

.0756 

8.98 

60 

1.5010 

4898 

10 

.0680 

8.16 

59 

1.4900 

48  16 

9 

.0610 

7.34 

58 

1  .  4800 

4734 

8 

.0536 

6.53 

57 

1  .  4690 

4653 

7 

.0464 

5.71 

56 

.4586 

45.71 

6 

.0390 

4.89 

55 

.4480 

44.89 

5 

1.0320 

4.08 

54 

.4380 

44.07 

4 

1.0256 

3.26 

53 

.4280 

4326 

3 

1.0190 

2.44 

52 

.4180 

42.45 

2 

1.0130 

1.63 

51 

.4080 

4163 

1 

1.0064 

0.81 

TABLE  H. 

Showing  the  Strength  of  Nitric  Acid  by  Specific  Gravity.    Hydrated 
and  Anhydride. 
TEMPERATURE  15  o . 
(Fresenius,  Zeitschrift  f.  analyt.  Chemie.  5.449.) 


Sp.  Gr. 

100  PARTS 

CONTAIN  — 

Sp.  Gr. 

100  PARTS 

CONTAIN— 

at  150  C. 

N205 

N03« 

at  150  c. 

N20s 

N03H 

1.530 

85.71 

100.00 

1.488 

75.43 

88.00 

1.530 

85.57 

99.84 

1.486 

74.95 

87.45 

1.530 

85.47 

99.72 

1.482 

73.86 

86.17 

1.529 

85.30 

99.52 

1.478 

72.16 

85.00 

1.523 

83.90 

97.89 

1.474 

72.00 

84.00 

1.520 

83.14 

97.00 

1.470 

71.14 

83.00 

1.516 

82.28 

96.00 

1.467 

70.28 

82.00 

1.514 

81.66 

95.27 

1.463 

69.39 

80.96 

1.509 

80.57 

94.00 

1.460 

68.57 

80.00 

1.506 

79.72 

93.01 

1.456 

67.71 

79.00 

1.503 

78.85 

92.00 

1.451 

66.56 

77.66 

1.499 

78.00 

91.00 

1.445 

65.14 

76.00 

1.495 

77.15 

90.00 

1.442 

64.28 

75.00 

1.494 

76.77 

89.56 

1.438 

63.44 

74.01 

1.435 

62.57 

73.00 

1.295 

39.97 

46.64 

1.432 

62.05 

72  39 

1.284 

38.57 

45.00 

1.  429 

61.06 

71.24 

1.274 

37.31 

43.53 

1.423 

60.00 

69.96* 

1.264 

36.00 

42.00 

1.419 

59.31 

69.20 

1.257 

35.14 

41.00 

1.414 

58.29 

68.00 

1.251 

34.28 

40.00 

1.410 

57.43 

67.00 

1.244 

^  *">       A  1 

oo  .  4o 

39.00 

1.405 

56.57 

66.00 

1.237 

32.53 

37.95 

1.400 

55.77 

65.07 

1.225' 

30.86 

36.00 

1.395 

54.85 

64.00 

.218 

29.29 

35.00 

1.393 

54.50 

63.59 

.211 

29.02 

33.86 

1.386 

53.14 

62.00 

.198 

27.43 

32.00 

1.381 

52.46 

61.21 

.192 

26.57 

31.00 

1.374 

51.43 

60.00 

.185 

25.71 

30.00 

1.372 

51.08 

59.59 

1.179 

24.85 

29.00 

1.368 

50.47 

58.88 

1.172 

24.00 

28.00 

1.363 

49.71 

58.00 

1.166 

23.14 

27.00 

1.358 

48.86 

57.00 

1.157 

22.04 

25.71 

1.353 

48.08 

56.10 

1.138 

19.71 

23.00 

1.346 

47.14 

55.00 

1.120 

17.14 

20.00 

1.341 

46.29 

54.00 

1.105 

14.97 

17.47 

1.339 

46.12 

53.81t 

1.089 

12.85 

15.00 

1.335 

45.40 

53.00 

1.077 

11.14 

13.00 

1.331 

44.85 

52.33 

1.067 

9.77 

11.41 

1.323 

43.70 

50.99 

1.045 

6.62 

7.22 

1.317 

42.83 

49.97 

1.022 

3.42 

4.00 

1.312 

42.00 

49.00 

1.010 

1.71 

2.00 

1.304 

41.14 

48.00 

0.999 

0.00 

0.00 

1.298 

40.44 

47.18 

*  Formula  :  NOsH 


f  Formula  :  NOsH  +  3H2O. 


PART  III. 


Preparation  of  Reagents. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 
PREPARATION  OF  REAGENTS. 

128.  Lead  Acetate  (Basic  Acetate  of  Lead  Solution}. 
—Put  900sr  of  acetate  of  lead  and  300?r  of  lead  oxide  in 
1  liter  of  water  at  150°P.  Let  stand  in  a  warm  place 
for  two  days,  shaking-  every  few  hours.  Solutions  of 
other  densities  can  be  made  by  using-  different  amounts 
of  the  acetate*  and  oxide,  but  in  the  same  proportion  of  3 
to  1.  In  most  German  factories  a  solution  with  a  sp.  g-. 
of  1.20  to  1.25  is  used.  The  beet  analysts  at  Chino  pre- 
fer a  solution  having-  a  sp.  g.  of  from  1.30  to  1.35,  for 
rapid  beet  work,  and  G.  L.  SPENCER  says  the  U.  S.  De- 
partment .  of  Agriculture  analysts  also  prefer  a  very 
concentrated  solution. 

1 29.  Alumina  Cream,  according;  to  the  directions  of 
the  U.  S.  Department  Internal  Revenue,  is  prepared  as 
follows :  Shake  up  powdered  commercial  alum  with 
water  at  ordinary  temperature  until  a  saturated  solution 
is  obtained.  Set  aside  a  little  of  the  solution,  and  to 
the  residue  add  ammonia,  little  by  little,  stirring- 
between  additions,  until  the  mixture  is  alkaline  to  litmus 
paper.  Then  drop  in  additions  of  the  portions  left 
aside,  until  the  mixture  is  just  acid  to  litmus  paper.  By 
this  procedure  a  cream  of  aluminum  hydroxide  is  obtained 
suspended  in  a  solution  of  ammonium  sulphate,  the 
presence  of  which  is  not  at  all  detrimental  for  sug-ar 
work  when  added  after  subacetate  of  lead,  the  ammo- 
nium sulphate  precipitating-  whatever  excess  of  lead 
may  be  present. 


PREPARATION  OF  REAGENTS.  1 67 

130.  Normal    Sodium    Solution.— 53. 08«r    of    pure 
sodium  carbonate   (Na2CO3)   previously   ignited  to  dull 
redness,    are   dissolved  in   water,   and    the    solution   is 
diluted  to  exactly  1  liter. 

131.  /Normal    Hydrochloric    Acid.  — Dilute  200OC    of 
pure   hydrochloric  acid  of  1.10  sp.   g.  with  water  to   1 
liter.     Normal  acid  should  be  of  such  strength  that  a 
certain   amount  of  it  will   exactly  neutralize   an   equal 
amount   of  normal    sodium   solution.      The   proportion 
above  given  will  make  an  acid  that  is  too  strong-.     Take 
20CC  of  normal  sodium  solution,  color  with  phenol,  and 
add  enough  of  the  acid  made  to  neutralize  the  sodium, 
measuring-  the  amount  of  acid  used  with  a  burette.     If, 
for  example,  it  is  found  by   repeated  experiments   that 
17.8CC  of  acid  neutralizes  the  20CC   of    sodium  solution, 
then  the  acid  must  be  diluted  to  20CC  by  adding-  2.2CC  of 
water,  and  all  the  acid  must  be  diluted  in  the  same  pro- 
portion. 

Example: 

60CC  has  been  used  to  find  the  streng-th  of  the  acid; 
then  940CC  of  acid  remain. 

17.8  :2.2  ::940  :  x 
x=116  2, 

The  number  of  cc  of  water  that  must  be  added  to  the 
940CC  of  acid  to  make  a  normal  solution.  After  adding 
this  water,  verify  by  seeing-  if  20CC  of  the  acid  will  neu- 
tralize the  20CC  of  the  sodium  solution. 

132.  /Normal     Sulphuric    Acid. — Pour,    while   con- 
stantly stirring-,  one  part  of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid 
into  15  equal  parts  of  water,   and,  after  cooling,  make 
110CC  of  the  solution  up  to  1100CC  with  water.     Mix  thor- 
oughly and   measure    off  100CC.     In  three   parts   of  25CC 


J68  PREPARATION    OF   REAGENTS. 

each  of  this  amount  determine  the  weight  of  sulphuric 
anhydride  (SO3)  in  each  lcc  of  the  solution,  analyzing 
with  barium  sulphate,  as  described  in  59.  Three  tests 
are  made  to  insure  accuracy.  From  the  contents  of  sul- 
phuric acid,  as  determined  by  the  tests,  estimate  how 
much  water  must  be  added  to  the  remaining-  liter  of  solu- 
tion so  that  each  cc  will  contain  0.040gr  of  SCK 

Example  : 

The  average  of  the  three  tests  gives  0.313gr  of  barium 
sulphate  in  25CC  of  the  acid  or  1.252gr  in  100CC.  Convert- 
ing- to  SO3  by  use  of  the  factor, 

1 . 252  x  .  3432  »=  0 . 4297s*. 

Therefore  each  100CC  must  be  diluted  according  to  the 

formula  : 

0 . 40  :  0 . 4297  :  :  100  :  x 
x=  107.425, 

A  dilution  of  7.425CC  for  each  100CC  or  74.25CC  for  the 
liter.  After  adding  this  amount  of  water  to  the  liter  of 
acid  it  is  well  to  make  a  final  test. 

133.  /Normal  /Nitric  Acid.— Dilute  200CC  concentrated 
nitric  acid  of  1.2  sp.  g.  with  water  to  1  liter,  and  then 
proceed  exactly  as   with  the  formation  of  normal  hydro- 
chloric acid. 

1 34.  The  Special  Acid  for  alkalinities  is  made  ac- 
cording to  36.       It   may   be   made  from  hydrochloric, 
nitric  or  sulphuric  acid. 

135.  Phenol  (Phenolphtalein). — Dissolve  the   phe- 
nolphtalein  powder  in  the  smallest  amount   of   alcohol 
and  dilute  with  water  to  4  or  5  times  the  volume  of  alco- 
hol.   This  indicator  turns  red  in  the  presence  of  alkalies. 


PREPARATION   OF   REAGENTS.  169 

136.  Rosolic  Acid.— Dissolve  1  part  in  100  parts  of 
alcohol.     This  indicator  becomes  colorless  in  the  pres- 
ence of  free  acid. 

137.  Cochineal. — Mix   3«r  of    pulverized  cochineal 
with  50CC  of  strong-  alcohol  and  200**  of  water.     Let  stand 
for  48  hours,  shaking  frequently. 

138.  Litmus   Solution.— Digest  1  part  of  powdered 
litmus  with  6  parts  of  alcohol  on  a  water  bath  until  the 
coloring  matter  soluble  in  alcohol  is  dissolved.     Pour  off 
the   alcoholic   solution  and  digest  the  residue  with  dis- 
tilled water.     Filter  and  divide  the   fluid  into  two  por- 
tions.   In  one  portion  stir  with  a  glass  rod  dipped  in  very 
dilute  nitric  acid  until  the  color  just  appears  red.     Add 
enough  of  the   second   portion  to  bring  back  the  blue 
color  and  then  turn   the  mixture  red  with  the  rod  and 
acid  as  before.     Add  the  remainder  of  the  second  portion 
and  the  whole  should  be  perfectly  neutral.     Mix  with  an 
equal  part  of  90  per  cent,  alcohol  and  preserve  in  an  un- 
stoppered  bottle  away  from  acid  fumes. 

139.  Litmus  Paper. — Prepare  a  litmus  solution  as 
above  and  divide  in  two  portions.     Make  one  portion  red 
by  the  addition  of  a  drop  or  two  of  nitric  acid  and  the 
other  a  distinct  blue  by  a  drop  or  two  of  caustic  soda  so- 
lution.    Dip  strips  of  Swedish  filter  paper  in  the  red  so- 
lution for  acid  paper    and   into   the   blue   for   alkaline 
paper.     Dry   away  from  laboratory  fumes  and  preserve 
in  an  unstoppered  bottle.     For  ordinary  work  any  un- 
glazed  paper  may  be  used  but  in  chemical  analysis  where 
small  pieces  of  the  paper  are  often  burned  with  the  pre- 
cipitates, the  Swedish  paper  must  be  used.     Acid  solu- 
tions turn  blue  litmus  paper  red  and  alkaline  solutions 
turn  the  red  paper  blue. 


l7o  PREPARATION   OF   RE  AGENTS*. 

140.  Turmeric    Paper.  —  Boil    1   part  of   powdered 
turmeric  with  4  parts  of  alcohol  and  2  of  water.     Filter 
and  dip  strips  of  unglazed  paper  into  the  filtrate.     Dry 
and  preserve  in  a  stoppered  bottle  away  from  the  light. 
Free  alkalies  turn  the  yellow  color  of  the  paper  to  brown. 

141.  Silver  /Nitrate  Solution    {Standard}.  —  Dissolve 
4.794gr  of  pure  crystallized  silver  nitrate   in   1  liter   of 
water.     Kach  cc  of  this  solution  will  precipitate   lmg  of 
chlorine,  and  in  a  solution  of  common  salt  the  precipi- 
tate formed  from  the  use  of  25CC  of  the   silver  nitrate 
solution  should  weig-h  0.101gr. 

142.  Fehling's    Solution    (Soxhlefs   Modification'}  is 

prepared  as  follows  : 

(1)  Dissolve  34.639gr  of  copper  sulphate   (free  from 
nitric  acid)  in  water  and  dilute  to  500CC. 

(2)  Dissolve  I73?r  of  sodium  and  potassium  tartrate 
(Rochelle  salts)  in  water  and  dilute  to  400CC,  mixing-  the 
solution  with  100CC  of  sodium  hydroxide  solution.     The 
latter  is  prepared  by  dissolving-  500gr  of  caustic  soda  in  1 
liter  of  water,  and  should  be  of  1.393  sp.  g-.  at  15°C. 

Mix  i   and  2  in  equal   volumes   immediately   before 
using-. 

143.  Solution    for    Standardizing    Fehling's. -- The 

method  for  determining-  the  amount  of  invert  sug-ar  nec- 
essary to  reduce  the  copper  in  10CC  of  Fehling-'s  mixed  so- 
lutions is  g-iven  in  48.  For  determining-  how  much  dex- 
trose is  necessary  for  the  same  purpose,  dissolve  4gr  of 
pure  anhydrous  dextrose  in  distilled  water  and  make  up 
to  1  liter.  Bach  cc  of  this  solution  will  then  contain 
0.004gr  dextrose.  Make  the  test  as  usual  and  the  number 


PREPARATION  OF  REAGENTS.  1 71 

of  cc  of  the  solution  used,  multiplied  by  4,  will  give  the 
number  of  milligrammes  of  dextrose  which  reduce  the 
copper. 

144.  Pipette  Solution    (for   cleaning-).— Dissolve    1 
part  bichromate  of  potash  in  10  parts  water  and  add  1 
part  concentrated  sulphuric  acid.     This  solution  is  used 
to  cleanse  pipettes  from  the  film  of  fat  which  sometimes 
forms  on  the  inside.     Fill  the  pipette  with  the  solution, 
cork  one  end  and  stand  on  the  stopped  end  for  twenty- 
four  hours. 

145.  Molybdic  Solution.— Dissolve  50*r  of  molybdic 
acid  in  20Qsr  or  208CC  of  ammonia,  specific  gravity,  0.96, 
and  pour  the  solution  thus  obtained  into  750*r  or  625CC  of 
nitric  acid,  specific  gravity  1.20.     Keep  the  mixture  in  a 
warm  place  for  several  days,  or  until  a  portion  heated  to 
40°  deposits  no  yellow  precipitate  of  ammonium  phos- 
phomolybdate.      Decant  the  solution  from  any  sediment 
and  preserve  it  in  glass-stoppered  vessels. 

146.  Magnesia  Mixture.— Dissolve  ll*r  of  recently 
ignited  calcined  magnesia  in  dilute  hydrochloric  acid, 
avoiding  an  excess  of  the  latter.      Add  a  little  calcined 
magnesia  in  excess,  and  boil  a  few  minutes  to  precipitate 
iron,  alumina,  and  phosphoric  acid  ;   filter  ;    add  140gr  of 
ammonium  chloride,  3SOCC  of  ammonia  of  specific  grav- 
ity 0.96,  and  water  enough  to  make  a  volume  of  1  liter. 
Instead   of  the  solution  of    ll*r   of  calcined   magnesia, 
155gr  of  crystallized  magnesium  chloride   (MgCl2.6H2O) 
may  be  used. 

147.  Ammonium   Citrate   Solution. —  Dissolve    185*r 
of  commercial  citric  acid  in  750CC  of  water;    nearly  neu- 
tralize with  commercial  ammonia;    cool;    add  ammonia 


172  PREPARATION   OF   REAGENTS. 

until  exactly  neutral '(testing-  with  alcoholic  solution  of 
rosolic  acid),  and  bring-  to  volume  of  1  liter.  Determine 
the  specific  gravity,  which  should  be  1.0900  at  20°,,  be- 
fore using-. 

148.  Baryta  Solution.— Pour  300  or  400CC  of  boiling 
water  over  25gr  of  crystallized  barium  hydrate,  and  filter 
the  hot  solution  quickly  throug-h  a  folded  filter,  into  a 
bottle,  then  diluting-  to  1  liter.       Utmost  speed  is  neces- 
sary as  the  fluid  is  liable  to  become  dim  by  the  forma- 
tion of  barium  carbonate,   carbonic  acid  being-  attracted 
from  the  air.       The  making-  of  a  normal  baryta  solution 
is  not  advisable,  as  it  is  unstable,  and  the  value  of  the 
solution,    as  made   above,    must   always   be   determined 
before  using-  (see  96).       Litmus  solution  should  always 
be  used  as  an  indicator  with  this  preparation. 

149.  Orsat's  Apparatus  Reagents  are  described   in 
87. 

1 5O.  Powdered  Glass  or  Sand  for  use  in  determin- 
ing the  dry  substance  of  massecuites  should  be  thorough- 
ly dig-ested  with  warm  and   dilute  hydrochloric  acid  to 
dissolve  all  foreign  material,  then  washed  with  water, 
dried  at  100°  and  preserved  in  a  perfectly  air-tig-ht  jar. 


PREPARATION   OF   REAGENTS. 


173 


TABLE  I. 

PREPARATION  OF  REAGENTS. 


NAME. 

Symbol. 

PREPARATION. 

Aqua  Regia 

Prepare  when   required  by  adding 

Sodium  Hydrate  
Potassium  Hydrate  
Baryta  Water 

NaOH 
KOH 
BaO2H2 

three  or  four  parts  of  concentrated 
HC1  to  1  part  concentrated  HNOs. 
Dissolve  1  part  pure  caustic  soda  in 
20  parts  of  water 
Dissolve  1  part  pure  caustic  potas- 
sium in  20  parts  of  water. 
Dissolve  1  part  barium  hydrate  in  5 

Calcium  Hydrate  . 

CaO2H2 

parts  of  water. 
Digest  slacked  lime  with  cold  water. 

Sodium  Carbonate  

Ammonium  Chloride... 
"           Sulphate 
Oxalate  

"            Carbonate.- 
Sulphide... 

Potassium  Sulphate  
"          Iodide  . 

Na2C03 

(NH)4C1 
(NH4)2S04 
(NH4)2C204 

(NH4)2C03 
(Nt4)2S 

K2SO4 
KI 

shaking  occasionally.     Filter  off 
the  clear  liquid. 
When  required  dissolve  1  part  of  the 
salt  in  5  parts  of  water.     Do  not 
let  stand  in  a  glass  bottle. 
Dissolve  1  part  in  6  parts  of  water. 
Dissolve  1  part  in  5  parts  of  water. 
Dissolve  1  part  of  the  pure  salt  in 
20  parts  of  water. 
Dissolve  1  part  in  o  parts  of  water 
and  add  1  part  of  ammonia  water. 
Pass  sulphuretted  hydrogen  thro'gh 
ammonia  until  saturated.    Then 
add  %  of  the  volume  of  the  same 
ammonia. 
Dissolve  1  part    of  the  salt  in  12 
parts  of  water. 

Chromate  .... 
Ferri  cyanide.. 

"          Ferrocyanide  . 
Barium  Chloride 

K2Cr04 
K6Fe2CyZ2 

K4FeCy6 

•Df.pl 

Dissolve  1  part  in  10  parts  of  water  . 
Prepare  only  when  required  by  dis- 
solving 1  part  of  the  salt  in  12 
parts  of  water. 
Dissolve  1  part  of  the  salt  in  12  parls 
of  water. 

11       Carbonate  .'. 

TJoPf). 

of  water 

"       Hydrate  

nate  to  give  it  a  thick  consistency. 

Copper  Sulphate  
Platinum  Bichloride  .  . 

Silver  Nitrate. 

CuS04 
PtCl4 

A  rrfj  C\ 

Dissolve  1  part  in  10  parts  of  water. 
[See  142  for  Fehling's  solution.] 
The  cheapest  way    to   obtain   this 
reagent  is  to  buy  the  5  per  cent, 
solution  of  commerce. 

Acetic  Acid  .... 

AgNL»3 

[See  141  for  standard  solution.] 

Sodium  Phosphate  .... 

2rl4VJ2 
HNa2PO4 

cake  analysis  use  the  No.  8  acid 
which  contains  30  per  cent.  C2H4 
O2. 
Dissolve  1  part  of  pure  salt  in  ]0 

+12H20 

parts  of  water. 

174 


PREPARATION   OF   REAGENTS. 

TABLE  I— CONTINUED. 

PREPARATION  OF  REAGENTS. 


NAME. 

Symbol. 

PRBPARATION. 

Hydrogen      Disodium 
Phosphate 

[See  sodium  phosphate  ] 

Calcium  Sulphate  

CaSO4 

Digest  in  cold  water  and  pour  off 

Hydrochloroplatinic 
Acid  .                

H2PtCl6 

the  clear  liquid  for  use. 
Dissolve  1  part  of  the    acid  in    10 

Ammonium  Nitrate 

parts  of  water.      [See    platinum 
bichloride.] 

Magnesia  Mixture    

[See  146  ] 

Molybdic  Solution   

[See  145  ] 

Magnesium  Nitrate 
Solution  

[See  95a.] 

Potassium  bichromate  .  . 
11           Ferrocyanide. 
Acetic  Acid 

K2Cr2O7 
K6Fe2Cyi2 
C2H4O2 

Dissolve  1  part  ol  the  salt    in    10 
parts  of  water. 
For  Fehling's  test  dissolve  2gr  of 
the  salt  in  lOOcc  of  water. 
No.  8  acetic  acid  (30  per  cent    CaH4 

PMRT  IV. 


TABLES 


i76 


TABLE  1. 

BRIX  TEMPERATURE  CORRECTION. 

For  Variations  from  Normal,  IT 


<i 

a, 

APPROXIMATE  DEGREE  BRIX  AN*  CORRECTION. 

Ho 

=  - 

s 

£ 

0 

.  5 

10 

15 

20 

25 

30 

35 

40 

50 

60 

70 

75 

0 

32 

27 

30 

41 

52 

6? 

7? 

8? 

9? 

P8 

1   11 

1   w 

1   9S 

1    9Q 

41 

23 

30 

37 

44 

52 

SQ 

6S 

79 

7S 

80 

88 

91 

°4 

10 

50. 

.20 

.26 

.29 

.33 

.36 

.39 

.42 

.45 

.48 

.50 

.54 

.58 

.61 

11 

51.8 

.18 

.23 

.26 

.28 

.31 

.34 

.36 

.39 

.41 

.43 

.47 

.50 

.53 

12 

53.6 

.16 

.20 

.22 

.24 

.26 

.29 

.31 

.33 

.34 

.36 

.40 

.42 

.46 

13 

55.4 

.14 

.18 

.19 

.21 

.22 

.24 

.26 

.27 

.28 

.29 

.33 

.35 

.39 

14 

57.2 

.12 

.15 

.16 

.17 

.18 

.19 

.21 

.22 

.22 

.23 

.26 

.28 

.32 

15 

59.0 

.09 

.11 

.12 

.14 

.14 

.15 

.16 

.17 

.16 

.17 

.19 

.21 

.25 

16 

60.8 

.06 

.07 

.08 

.09 

.10 

.10 

.11 

.12 

.12 

.12 

.14 

.16 

.18 

17 

62.6 

.02 

.02 

.03 

.03 

.03 

.04 

.04 

.04 

.04 

.04 

& 

.05 

.06 

[Add  the  correction  to  readings  above  17^C  (63>£F)  and  subtract 
the  correction  from  those  below  this  temperature.] 


18 

64.4 

.02 

.03 

.03 

.03 

.03!    .03 

.03 

.03 

.03 

.03 

.03 

.031    .02 

19 

66.2 

.06 

.06 

.08 

.08 

.091^09 

.10 

.10 

.10 

.10 

.10 

.08    .06 

20 

68.0 

.11 

.14 

.15 

.17 

.IjfT.lH 

.18 

.18 

.19 

.19 

.18 

.15L.11 

21 

69.8 

.16 

.20 

.22 

,24 

.24    .25 

.25 

.25 

.26 

.26 

.25 

JBr-i8 

22 

71.6 

.21 

.26 

.29 

.31 

.31    .32 

.32 

.32 

.33 

.34 

.321.  29)    .25 

23 

73.4 

.27 

.32 

.35 

.37 

.38     .3^ 

.39 

.39 

*o 

.42 

.33 

24 

75.2 

.32 

.38- 

.41 

.43 

.44     .46 

.46 

.47 

.47 

.50 

.46    .43 

.40 

25 

77.0 

.37 

.44 

.47 

.49 

.51     .53 

.54 

.55 

.55 

.58 

.54 

.51 

.48 

26 

78.8 

.43 

.50 

.54 

.56 

.58    .60 

.61 

.62 

.62 

.66 

.62 

.58 

.55 

27 

80.6 

.49 

.57 

.61 

.63 

.65!    .68 

.68 

.69 

.70 

.74 

.70 

.65 

.62 

28 

82.4 

.56 

.64 

.68 

.70 

.72    .76 

.76 

.78 

.78 

.82 

.78 

.72 

.70 

29 

84.2 

.63 

.71 

.75 

.78 

.79|    .84 

.84 

.86 

.86 

.90 

.86 

-  .80 

.78 

30 

86.0 

.70 

.78 

.82 

.87 

.87    .92 

.92 

.94 

.94 

.98 

.94 

.88 

.86 

35 

95.0 

1.10 

1.17 

1.22 

1.24 

1.301.32 

1.33 

1.35 

1.36 

1.39 

1.34 

1.27 

1.25 

40 

104.0 

1.50 

1.61 

1.67 

1.71 

1.731.791.79 

1.80 

1.82 

1.83 

1.78 

1.69 

1.65 

50 

122.0 

2.65 

2.74 

2.74 

2.782.802.80 

2.80 

2.80 

2.79 

2.70 

2.56 

2.51 

60 

140.0 

3.87 

3.88 

3.88 

3.883.883.88 

3.88 

3.90 

3.82 

3.70 

3.43 

3.41 

70 

158.0 

5.18 

5.20 

5.145.135.10 

5.08 

5.06 

4.90 

4.72 

4.47 

4.35 

177 


For  practical  work  the  table  given  below  is  sufficiently  accurate 
unless  the  solution  has  a  brix  of  under  5  or  over  25.  In  some  factories 
the  temperature  correction  for  diffusion  juice  is  given  in  tenths  and 
hundredths  of  a  degree,  but  for  all  other  tests  the  tenths  is  a  suffi- 
cient correction  : 

TEMPERATURE  CORRECTION. 


Temperature. 
C.        F. 

Subtract  from  *Brix. 

14 

57 

.2 

15 

59 

.1 

16 

61 

.1 

17 

63 

.0 

Add  to  Brix. 

18 

64 

.0 

19 

66 

.1 

20 

68 

.2 

21 

22 

70 

72 

m 

23 

73 

.4 

24 

75 

.4  • 

25 

77 

.5 

26 

79 

.6 

27 

81 

.6 

28 

82 

.7 

29 

84 

.8 

30 

86 

.9 

31 

88 

.9 

32 

90 

1.0 

33 

91 

1.0 

34 

93 

1.1 

35 

95 

1.2 

I78 


TABLE  II. 

Comparison  of  Degrees   Brix   and   Baume   and   Specific   Gravity 

FOR  PURE  SUGAR  SOLUTIONS. 

Temperature  17%  °  C  =  63  5  Far. 


Degrees 
Brix. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Degrees 
Baume. 

Degrees 
Brix. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Degrees 
Beaume. 

0.0 

1  00000 

0  00 

4  0 

1  01570 

2  27. 

0.1 

1  00038 

0.06 

4   1 

1.01610 

2  33 

0.2 

1.00077 

0  11 

4  2 

1.01650 

2.38 

0  3 

1.00116 

0  17 

4  3 

1  01690 

2  44 

0  4 

1.00155 

0.23 

4.4 

1  01730 

2.50 

0.5 

1.00193 

0  28 

4.5 

1  01770 

2.55 

0.6 

1-  00232 

0  34 

4  6 

1.01810 

2  61 

0.7 

1.00271 

0  40 

4.7 

1  01850 

2  67 

0.8 

1.00310 

0.45 

4  8 

1  01890 

2.72 

09 

1.00349 

0  51 

4  9 

1  01930 

2.78 

10 

1  00388 

0  57 

5.0 

1  .  01970 

2  84 

1.1 

1.00427 

0.63 

5.1 

1  02010 

2  89 

1.2 

1.00466 

0  68 

5.2 

1  02051 

2  95 

1  3 

1  00505 

0  74 

5  3 

1  02091 

3.01 

1.4 

1.00544 

0.80 

5  4 

1.02131 

3  06 

1  5 

1  00583 

0  85 

5  5 

1  02171 

3.12 

1  6 

1  00622 

0  91 

5  6 

1  02211 

3.18 

1.7 

1  00662 

0  97 

5.7 

02252 

3.23 

1  8 

1  .  00701 

1  02 

5  8 

.02292 

3.29 

1.9 

1.00740 

1.08 

5.9 

.  02333 

3.35 

2.0 

1.00779 

1  14 

6  0 

.02373 

3.40 

2  1 

1  00818 

1  19 

6  1 

02413 

3.46 

2.2 

1  00858 

1.25 

6  2 

.02454 

3  52 

2  3 

1.00897 

1  31 

6  3 

02494 

3.57 

2.4 

1  00936 

1  36 

6  4 

.02535 

3  63 

2  5 

1  00976 

1.42 

6  5 

02575 

3.69 

2.6 

01015 

1  48 

6  6 

.02616 

3.74 

2.7 

01055 

1  53 

6.7 

02657 

3.80 

2.8 

.  01094 

1  59 

6.8 

02697 

3  86 

2  9 

01134 

1  65 

6.9 

.02738 

3.91 

3.0 

01173 

1  70 

70 

02779 

3  97 

3.1 

01213 

1.76 

7  1 

.02819 

4  03 

3.2 

01252 

1  82 

7.2 

02860 

4  08 

3.3 

1  01292 

1.87 

7  3 

1  02901 

4  14 

3.4 

1  01332 

1  93 

7  4 

1  02942 

4  20 

3  5 

1  01371 

1.99 

7  5 

1  02983 

4.25 

3.6 

1  01411 

2  04 

7.6 

1  03024 

4.31 

3  7 

1  01451 

2  10 

7  7 

1  .  03064 

4.37 

38 

1  01491 

2.16 

7.8 

1  03105 

4.42 

3  9 

1.01531 

2  21 

7  9 

1  03146 

4.48 

TABLE  II.— CON 


179 


Degrees 
Brix. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Degrees 
Baume. 

Degrees 
Brix. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Degrees 
Baume. 

8.0 

1.03187 

4.53 

12.4 

.05021 

7.02 

8.1 

1.03228 

4.59 

12.5 

.05064 

7  08 

8  2 

1.03270 

4.65 

12.6 

.05106 

7.13 

8.3 

1.03311 

4.70 

12.7 

.05149 

7.19 

8.4 

1.03352 

4.76 

12.8 

.05191 

7.24 

8.5 

1.03393 

4.82 

12.9 

.05233 

7.30 

8.6 

1  .  03434 

4.87 

13.0 

1.05276 

7.36 

8  7 

1  .  03475 

4.93 

13.1 

1.05318 

7.41 

8.8 

1  03517 

4.99 

13.2 

1.05361 

7.47 

8.9 

1.03558 

5-04' 

13.3 

1.05404 

7.53 

9.0 

1.03599 

5.10 

13  4 

1.05446 

7.58 

9.1 

1.03640 

5.16 

13.5 

1.05489 

7.64 

9.2 

1.03682 

5.21 

13  6 

1.05532 

7  69 

9.3 

1.03723 

5.27 

13.7 

1  05574 

7.75 

9.4 

1.03765 

5.33 

13.8 

1.05617 

7.81 

9.5 

1  03806 

5.38 

13.9 

1.05660 

7  86 

9.6 

1.03848 

5.44 

14.0 

1.05703 

7.92 

9.7 

1.03889 

5.50 

14.1 

1.05746 

7.98 

9.8 

1.03931 

5.55 

14.2 

1  05789 

8.03 

9.9 

1.03972 

5.61 

14.3 

1.05831 

8.09 

10.0 

1.04014 

5  67 

14.4 

1  05874 

8.14 

10.1 

1.04055 

5.72 

14.5 

1.05917 

8.20 

10.2 

1  .  04097 

5.78 

14.6 

1.05960 

8.26 

10.3 

1.04139 

5.83 

14.7 

1.06003 

8.31 

10.4 

1.04180 

5.89 

14.8 

1  06047 

8.37 

10.5 

1.04222 

5.95 

14  9 

1.06090 

8  43 

10.6 

1.04264 

6.00 

15.0 

1.06133 

8.48 

10.7 

1.04306 

6.06 

15.1 

1  .  06176 

8.54 

10.8 

1.04348 

6.12 

15.2 

1.06219 

8.59 

10.9 

1.04390 

6.17 

15.3 

1  .  06262 

8.65 

11.0 

1.04431 

6  23 

15.4 

1.06306 

8.71 

11.1 

1.04473 

6.29 

15.5 

1  .  06349 

8.76 

11.2 

1.04515 

6.34 

15  6 

1.06392 

.     8.82 

11  3 

1.04557 

6.40 

15.7 

1.06436 

8.88 

11.4 

1.04599 

6.46 

15.8 

1.06479 

8.93 

11.5 

1.04641 

6  51 

15.9 

1.06522 

8  99 

11.6 

1.04683 

6.57 

16.0 

1.06566 

9.04 

11.7 

1  04726 

6.62 

16.1 

1.06609 

9.10 

11.8 

1.04768 

6.68 

16.2 

1.06653 

9.16 

11.9 

1  .  04810 

6.74 

16.3 

1  .  06696 

9.21 

12.0 

1  .  04852 

6.79 

16.4 

1.06740 

9.27 

12.1 

1.04894 

6.85 

16.5 

1.06783 

9.33 

12.2 

.  1.04937 

6.91 

16.6 

1.06827 

9.38 

12.3 

1.04979 

6.96 

16.7 

1.06871 

9.44 

i8o 


TABLE  II.— CON. 


Degrees 
Brix. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Degrees 
Baume. 

Degrees 
Brix. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Degrees 
Baume. 

16.8 

1.06914 

9.49 

21.2 

1.08869 

11.96 

16.9 

1.06958 

9.55 

21.3 

1.08914 

12.01 

17.0 

1.07002 

9.61 

21.4 

.08959 

12.07 

17.1 

1.07046 

9.66 

21.5 

.09004 

12.13 

17.2 

1  07090 

9.72 

21  6 

.09049 

12.18 

17.3 

1.07133 

9.77 

21.7 

.09095 

12.24 

17.4 

1.07177 

9.83 

21.8 

.09140 

12  29 

17.5 

1.07221 

9.89 

21.9 

.09185 

12.35 

17.6 

1.07265 

9.94 

22.0 

.09231 

12.40 

17.7 

1  .  07309 

10.00 

22.1 

.  09276 

12.46 

17.8 

1.07358 

10.06 

22.2 

.09321 

12.52 

17.9 

1.07397 

10.11 

22.3 

.09367 

12.57 

18.0 

1.07441 

10.17 

22.4 

.09412 

12.63 

18.1 

1.07485 

10.22 

22.5 

.09458 

12.68 

18.2 

1.07530 

10.28 

22.6 

.09503 

12.74 

18.3 

1.07574 

*  10-.  33 

22.7 

.09549 

12.80 

18.4 

1.07618 

10.39 

22.8 

.09595 

12.85 

18.5 

1.07662 

10.45 

22.9 

.09640 

12.91 

18.6 

1.07706 

10.50 

23.0 

.09686 

12.96 

18.7 

.07751 

10.56 

23.1 

1.09732 

13.02 

18.8 

.07795 

10.62 

23.2 

1.09777 

13.07 

18.9 

.07839 

10.67 

23.3 

1.09823 

13.13 

19.0 

.07884 

10.73 

23.4 

1  .  09869 

13.19 

19.1 

.07928 

10.78 

23.5 

1.09915 

13.24 

19.2 

.07973 

10.84 

23.6 

1.09961 

13.30 

19.3 

1.08017 

10.90 

23.7 

1.10007 

13.35 

19.4 

1.08062 

10.95 

23.8 

1  .  10053 

13.41 

19.5 

1  .  08106 

11.01 

23.9 

1.10099 

13.46 

19.6 

1.08151 

11.06 

24.0 

1  .  10145 

13.52 

19.7 

1.08196 

11.12 

24.1 

1.10191 

13.58 

19.8 

1.08240 

11.18 

24.2 

1  .  10237 

13.63 

19.9 

1.08285 

11.23 

24.3 

1  .  10283 

13.69 

20.0 

1.08329 

11.29 

24.4 

1  .  10329 

13.74 

20.1 

1.98374 

11.34 

24.5 

1  .  10375 

13.80 

20.2 

1.08419 

11.40 

24.6 

1  .  10421 

13.85 

20.3 

1.08464 

11.45 

24.7 

1.10468 

13.91 

20.4 

1.08509 

11.51 

24.8 

1  .  10514 

13.96 

20.5 

1.08553 

11.57 

24.9 

1.10560 

14.02 

20.6 

1.08599 

11.62 

25.0 

1  .  10607 

14.08 

20.7 

1.08643 

11.68 

25.1 

1.10653 

14.13 

20.8 

1.08688 

11.73 

25.2 

1.10700 

14.19 

20.9 

1.08733 

11.79 

25.3 

1  .  10746 

14.24 

21.0 

1.08778 

11.85 

25.4 

1.10793. 

14.30 

21.1 

1.08824 

11.90 

25.5 

1.10839 

14.35 

TABLE  ll.-CoN. 


181 


Degrees 
Brix. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Degrees 
Baume. 

Degrees 
Brix. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Degrees 
Baume. 

25.6 

1  .  10886 

14.41 

30.0 

1.12967  _ 

16.85 

25.7 

1  .  10932 

14.47 

30.1 

1.13015 

16.90 

25.8 

1  .  10979 

14.52 

30.2 

1.13063 

16.96 

25.9 

1.11026 

14.58 

30.3 

1.13111 

17.01 

26.0 

1.11072 

14.63 

30.4 

1.13159 

17.07 

26.1 

1.11119 

14.69 

30.5 

1.13207 

17.12 

26.2 

1  .  11166 

14.74 

30.6 

1  13255 

17.18 

26.3 

1.11213 

14.80 

30.7 

1.13304 

17.23 

26.4 

1.11259 

14.85 

30.8 

1.13352 

17.29 

26.5 

1  .  11306 

14.91 

30.9 

1.13400 

17.35 

26.6 

1  11353 

14.97 

31.0 

1.13449 

17.40 

26.7 

1  .  11400 

15.02 

31.1 

1.13497 

17.46 

26.8 

1.11447 

15.08 

31.2 

1.13545 

17.51 

26.9 

1  .  11494 

15.13 

ar<« 

1  13594 

17.57 

27.0 

1  .  11541 

15  19 

31.4  . 

1.13642 

17.62 

27.1 

1.11588 

15.24  . 

31.5 

1.13691 

17.68 

27.2 

1  .  11635 

15.30 

31.6 

1.13740 

17.73 

27.3 

1.11682 

15.35 

31.7 

1  .  13788 

17.79 

27.4 

1  .  11729 

15.41 

31.8 

1,13837 

17.84 

27.5 

1.11776 

15  46 

31.9 

1.13885 

17.90 

27.6 

1  .  11824 

15.52 

32.0 

1.13934 

17.95 

27.7 

1.11871 

15.58 

32  1 

1.13983 

18.01 

27.8 

1  .  11918 

15.63 

32.2 

1.14032 

18.06 

27.9 

1.11965 

15  69 

32.3 

1  .  14081 

18.12 

28.0 

1  .  12013 

15.74 

32.4 

1.14129 

18.17 

28.1 

1.12060 

15.80 

32.5 

1.14178 

18.23 

28.2 

1  .  12107 

15.85 

32.6 

1.14227 

18.28 

28.3 

1.12155 

15.91 

32.7 

1.14276 

18.34 

28.4 

1.12202 

15.96 

32.8 

1.14325 

18.39 

28.5 

1  .  12250 

16.02 

32.9 

1  .  14374 

18.45 

28.6 

1  .  12297 

16.07 

33.0 

1  .  14423 

18.50 

28.7 

1  .  12345 

16.13 

33.1 

1.14472 

18.56 

28.8 

1.12393 

16.18 

33.2 

1.14521 

18.61 

28.9 

1.12440 

16.24 

33.3 

1  .  14570 

18.67 

29.0 

1  .  12488 

16.30 

33.4 

1.14620 

18.72 

29.1 

1.12536 

16.35 

33.5 

1.14669 

18.78 

29.2 

1  .  12583 

16.41 

33.6 

1.14718 

18.83 

29.3 

1  .  12631 

16.46 

33.7 

1  .  14767 

18.89 

29.4 

1  .  12679 

16.52 

33.8 

1.14817 

18.94 

29.5 

1.12727 

16.57 

33.9 

1.14866 

19.00 

29.6 

1.12775 

16.63 

34.0 

1.14915 

19.05 

29.7 

1.12823 

16.68 

34.1 

1.14965 

19.11 

29.8 

1.12871 

16  74 

34.2 

1.15014 

19.16 

29.9     1       1.12919 

16.79 

34.3 

1  .  15064 

19.22 

182 


TABLE  II.— CON. 


Degrees 
Brix. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Degrees 

Baume 

Degrees 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Degrees 
Baume. 

34.4 

1.15113 

19.27 

38.8 

1.17327 

21.68 

34.5 

1.15163 

19.33 

38.9 

1  .  17379 

21.73 

34.6 

1.15213 

19.38 

39.0 

1  .  17430 

21.79 

34.7 

1  15262 

19.44 

39  1 

1  .  17481 

21.84 

34.8 

1.15312 

19  49 

39.2 

1.17532 

21.90 

34.9 

1.15362 

19.55 

39.3 

1.17583 

21.95 

35.0 

1.15411 

19.60 

39  4 

1.17635 

22.00 

35.1 

1  .  15461 

19.66 

39.5 

1  17686 

22.06 

35.2 

1  .  15511 

19.71 

39.6 

1  .  17737 

22.11 

35.3 

1.15561 

19.76 

39.7 

1  .  17789 

22.17 

35.4 

1  .  15611 

19.82 

39.8 

1.17840 

22.22 

35.5 

1.15661 

19.87 

39.9 

1  .  17892 

22.28 

35.6 

1.15710 

19.93 

40.0 

1  .  17943 

22.33 

35.7 

1.15760 

19.98 

40.1 

1  .  17995 

22.38 

35.8 

1.15810 

20.04 

40.2 

1.18046 

22.44 

35.9 

1.15861 

20.09 

.40.3 

1.18098 

22.49 

36.0 

1.15911 

20.15 

40.4 

1.18150 

22.55 

36.1 

1.15961 

20.20 

40.5 

1  .  18201 

22.60 

36.2 

1.16011 

20.26 

40.6 

1.18253 

22.66 

36.3 

1.16061 

20.31 

40  7 

1.18305 

22.71 

36.4 

1.16111 

20.37 

40.8 

1.18357 

22.77 

36  5 

1.16162 

20.42 

40.9 

1.18408 

22.82 

36.6 

1.16212 

20.48 

41.0 

1.18460 

22.87 

36.7 

1.16262 

20.53 

41.1 

1.18512 

22.93 

36.8 

1.16313 

20.59 

41.2 

1  .  18564 

22.98 

36.9 

1.16363 

20.64 

41.3 

1.18616 

23.04 

37.0 

1  .  16413 

20.70 

41.4 

1  .  18668 

23.09 

37.1 

1  16464 

20  75 

41  5 

1.18720 

23.15 

37.2 

1.16514 

20.80 

41.6 

1.18772 

23.20 

37.3 

1  .  16565 

20.86 

41.7 

1  .  18824 

23.25 

37.4 

1.16616 

20.91 

41.8 

1.18877 

23.31 

37.5 

1.16666 

20.97 

41.9 

1  18929 

23.36 

37.6 

1  .  16717 

21  02 

42.0 

1  .  18981 

23.42 

37.7 

1.16768 

21.08 

42.1 

1.19033 

23.47 

37.8 

1.16818 

21.13 

42.2 

1.19086 

23.52 

37.9 

1.16869 

21  19 

42.3 

1  .  19138 

23.58 

38.0 

1.16920 

21.24 

42.4 

1  .  19190 

23.63 

38.1 

1.16971 

21.30 

42.5 

1.19243 

23.69 

38.2 

1.17022 

21.35 

42.6 

1  .  19295 

23.74 

38.3 

1.17072 

21.40 

42.7 

1  .  19348 

23.79 

38.4 

1.17132 

21.46 

42.8 

1  .  19400 

23.85 

38.5 

1  .  17174 

21.51 

42.9 

1  .  19453 

23.90 

38.6 

1  17225 

21.57 

43.0 

1.19505 

23.96 

38.7 

1.17276 

21  62 

43.1 

1  .  19558 

24.01 

TABLE  II.— CON. 


183 


Degrees 
Brix. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Degrees 
Baume. 

Degrees 
Brix. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Degrees 
Baume. 

43.2 

1  .  19611 

24.07 

47.6 

1.21964 

26.43 

43.3 

1  .  19663 

24.12 

47.7  ' 

1.22019 

26.49 

43.4 

1.19716 

24.17 

47.8 

1.22073 

26.54 

43.5 

1.19769 

24.23 

47.9 

1.22127 

26.59 

43.6 

1.19822 

24.28 

48  0 

1.22182 

26.65 

43.7 

1  .  19875 

24.34 

48.1 

1.22236 

26.70 

43.8 

1  .  19927 

24.39 

48.2 

1.22291 

26.75 

43.9 

1  19980 

24.44 

48  3 

1.22345 

26.81 

44.0 

1.20033 

24.50 

48.4 

1.22400 

26.86 

44.1 

1.20086 

24.55 

48.5 

1.22455 

26.92 

44  2 

1.20139 

24.61 

48.6 

1.22509 

26.97 

44.3 

1.20192 

24.66 

48.7 

1.22564 

27.02 

44.4 

1.20245 

24.71 

48.8 

1.22619 

27.08 

44  5 

1.20299 

24.77 

48.9 

1.22673 

27.13 

44.6 

1  20352 

24.82 

49.0 

1.22728 

27.18 

44.7 

1.20405 

24.88 

49.1 

1.22783 

27.24 

44.8 

1.20458 

24.93 

49.2 

.22838 

27.29 

44.9 

1.20512 

24.98 

49.3 

.22893 

27.34 

45.0 

1.20565 

25.04 

49.4 

.  22948 

27.40 

45.1 

1.20618 

25.09 

49.5 

.23003 

27.45 

45.2 

1.20672 

25.14 

49.6 

"  .23058 

27.50 

45.3 

1.20725 

25.20 

49,7 

.23113 

27.56 

45.4 

1  20779 

25.25 

49.8 

.23168 

27.61 

45.5 

1  20832 

25  31 

49.9 

.23223 

27.66 

45.6 

1.20886 

25.36 

50.0 

1.23278 

27.72 

-45.7 

.20939 

25.41 

50.1 

1.23334 

27.77 

45.8 

.20993 

25.47 

50.2 

1.23389 

27.82 

45.9 

.21046 

25.52 

50.3 

1.23444 

27.88 

46.0 

21100 

25.57 

50.4 

1.23499 

27.93 

46.1 

.21154 

25.63 

50.5 

1.23555 

27.98 

46.2 

1.21208 

25.68 

50.6 

1.23610 

28.04 

46.3 

1.21261 

25.74 

50.7 

1.23666 

28.09 

46.4 

1.21315 

25.79 

50.8 

1.23721 

28.14 

46.5 

1.21369 

25.84 

50.9 

1.23777 

28.20 

46  6 

1  21423 

25.90 

51.0 

1.23832 

28.25 

46.7 

1.21477 

25.95 

51.1 

1.23888 

28.30 

46.8 

1.21531 

26.00 

51.2 

1.23943 

28.36  , 

46.9 

1.21585 

26.06 

51.3 

1.23999 

28.41 

47.0 

1.21639 

26.11 

51.4 

1.24055 

28.46 

47  1 

1.21693 

26.17 

51.5 

1.24111 

28.51 

47.2 

1.21747 

26.22 

51.6 

1.24166 

28  57 

47.3 

1.21802 

26.27 

51.7 

1.24222 

28.62 

47  4 

1  21856 

26.33 

51.8 

1.24278 

28.67 

47.5 

1.21910 

26.38 

51  9 

1.24334 

28.73 

1 84 


TABLE  II.— CON 


Degrees 
Brix. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Degrees 
Baume. 

Degrees 
Brix. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Degrees 
Baume. 

52.0 

1.24390 

28.78 

56.4 

1.26889 

31.10 

52.1 

1.24446 

28.83 

56.5 

1.26946 

31.16 

52.2 

1.24502 

28.89 

56.6 

1.27004 

31.21 

52.3 

1.24558 

28.94 

56.7 

1.27062 

31.26 

52.4 

1.24614 

28  99 

56.8 

1.27120 

31.31 

52.5 

1.24670 

29.05 

56.9 

1.27177 

31.37 

52.6 

1.24726 

29.10 

57.0 

1.27235 

31.42 

52.7 

1.24782 

29.15 

57.1 

1.27293 

31.47 

52.8 

1.24839 

29.20 

57.2 

1  27351 

31.52 

52.9 

1.24895 

29.26 

57.3 

1  .  27409 

31.58 

53.0 

1.24951 

29.31 

57.4 

1.27467 

31.63 

53.1 

1.25008 

29.36 

57.5 

1.27525 

31.68 

53.2 

1.25064 

29  42 

57.6 

1.27583 

31.73 

53.3 

1.25120 

29.47 

57  7 

1.27641 

31.79 

53.4 

1.25177 

29.52 

57.8 

1.27699 

31.84 

53.5 

1.25233 

29.57 

57.9 

1.27758 

31.89 

53.6 

1.25290 

29.63 

58.0 

1.27816 

31.94 

53.7 

1  25347 

29.68 

58.1 

1.27874 

32.00 

53.8 

1  .  25403 

29.73 

58.2 

1.27932 

32  05 

53.9 

1.25460 

29  79 

58  3 

1.27991 

32.10 

54.0 

1.25517 

29.84 

58.4 

1  .  28049 

32.15 

54.1 

1.25573 

29.89 

58.5 

1.28107 

32.20 

54.2 

1.25630 

29.94 

58.6 

1.28166 

32.26 

54.3 

1.25687 

30.00 

58.7 

1.28224 

32.31 

54.4 

1.25744 

30.05 

58  8 

1  28283 

32.36 

54.5 

1.25801 

30  10 

58.9 

1.28342 

32.41 

54.6 

1.25857 

30.16 

59.0 

1.28400 

32.47 

54.7 

1.25914 

30.21 

59.1 

1.28459 

32.52 

54.8 

1.25971 

30.26 

59.2 

1.28518 

32.57 

54  9 

1  26028 

30.31 

59.3 

1.28576 

32.62 

55  0 

1.26086 

30  37 

59.4 

1.28635 

32.67 

55.1 

1.26143 

30.42 

59.5 

1.28694 

32.73 

55.2 

1.26200 

30.47 

59.6 

1  28753 

32  78 

55.3 

1.26257 

30  53 

59.7 

1.28812 

32.83 

55.4 

1.26314 

30.58 

59.8 

1.28871 

32.88 

55.5 

1.26372 

30.63 

59.9 

1.28930 

32.93 

55.6 

1.26429 

30  68 

60.0 

1.28989 

32.99 

55.7 

1.26486 

30.74 

60.1 

1.29048 

33.04 

55.8 

1.26544 

30.79 

60.2 

1.29107 

33.09 

55.9 

1.26601 

30.84 

60.3 

1.29166 

33.14 

56.0 

•    1.26658 

30.89 

60.4 

1.29225 

33  20 

56.1 

1.26716 

30.95 

60.5 

1.29284 

33.25 

56.2 

1.26773 

31.00 

60.6 

1.29343 

33.30 

56  3 

1.26831 

31.05 

60.7 

1.29403 

33.35 

TABLE  II.— CON. 


185 


Degrees 
Brix. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Degrees 
Baume. 

Degrees 
Brix. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Degrees 
Baume. 

60.8 

1  .  29462 

33.40 

65  2 

.32111 

35.68 

60.9 

1  .  29521 

33.46 

65  3 

.32172 

35.73 

61.0 

1  29581 

33.51 

65.4 

.32233 

35.78 

61.1 

1  .  29640 

33.56 

65  5 

.32294 

35.83 

61.2 

1.29700 

33.61 

65.6 

.32355 

35.88 

61.3 

1.29759 

33.66 

65.7 

.32417 

35.93 

61.4 

1.29819 

33.71 

65  8 

.32478 

35.98 

61.5 

1.29878 

33.77 

65.9 

.32539 

36  04 

61.6 

1  .  29938 

33.82 

66.0 

1.32601 

36.09 

61  7 

1.29998 

33.87 

66.1 

1.32662 

36.14 

61.8 

1.30057 

33.92 

66.2 

1.32724 

36.19 

61.9 

1.30117 

33.97 

66.3 

1.32785 

36.24 

62.0 

1.30177 

34.03 

66.4 

1.32847 

"36.29 

62.1 

1.30237 

34.08 

66  5 

1.32908 

36  34 

62.2 

1  30297 

34.13 

66  6 

1.32970 

36  39 

62.3 

1  .  30356 

34  18 

66.7 

1.33031 

36.45 

62.4 

1.30416 

34.23 

66  8 

1  33093 

36.50 

62.5 

.30476 

34.28 

66.9 

1.33155 

36.55 

62.6 

.30536 

34.34 

67.0 

1.33217 

36  60 

62.7 

.  30596 

34.39 

67.1 

1.33278 

36.65 

62.8 

.30657 

34.44 

67.2 

1.33340 

36.70 

62.9 

.30717 

34  49 

67.3 

1.33402 

36.75 

63.0 

.30777 

34.54 

67.4 

1.33464 

36.80 

63.1 

1.30837 

34.59 

67.5 

1.33526 

36.85 

63.2 

.30897 

34  65 

67.6 

1.33588 

36.90 

63  3 

!  30958 

34.70 

67.7 

1.33650 

36  96 

63.4 

.31018 

34.75 

67.8 

1.33712 

37.01 

63.5 

.31078 

34.80 

67.9 

1  33774 

37  06 

63.6 

1.31139 

34.85 

68.0 

1.33836 

37.11 

63.7 

1  .  31199 

34.90 

68.1 

1.33899 

37.16 

63.8 

1.3ljb 

34  96 

68.2 

1.33961 

37.21 

63.9 

1.31320 

35.01 

68.3 

1.34023 

37.26 

64.0 

1.31381 

35.06 

68.4 

1.34085 

37.31 

64.1 

1  31442 

35.11 

68.5 

1.34148 

37.36 

64  2 

1.31502 

35.16 

68.6 

1.34210 

37.41 

64.3 

1.31563 

35.21 

68.7 

1  34273 

37.47 

64.4 

1.31624 

35.27 

68  8 

1.34335 

37.52 

64.5 

1.31684 

35.32 

68.9 

1.34398 

37.57 

64  6 

1.31745 

35.37 

69.0 

1.34460 

37.62 

64.7 

1.31806 

35.42 

69.1 

1.34523 

37.67 

64.8 

1.31867 

35.47 

69.2 

1.34585 

37.72 

64.9 

1.31928 

35.52 

69  3 

1.34648 

37.77 

65.0 

1.31989 

35.57 

69.4 

1.34711 

37.82 

65  1 

1.32050 

35.63 

69.5 

1  34774 

37.87 

OF  THB 

TT-NTVFVRfiTTY 


1 86 


TABLE  II.— CON. 


Degrees 
Bjix. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Degrees 
Baume. 

Degrees 
Brix. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Degrees 
Baume. 

69.6 

1.34836 

37.92 

74.0 

1  37639 

40.14 

69.7 

1.34899 

37.97 

74  1 

1.37704 

40.19 

69.8 

1.34962 

38.02 

74.2 

1.37768 

40.24 

69.9 

1.35025 

38.07 

74.3 

1.37833 

40.29 

70.0 

1.35088 

38.12 

74.4 

1.37898 

40.34 

70.1 

1  35151 

38.18 

74.5 

1  .  37962 

40.39 

70  2 

1.35214 

38.23 

74.6 

1.38027 

40.44 

70.3 

1.35277 

38.28 

74.7 

1  38092 

40.49 

70.4 

1.35340 

38.33 

74.8 

1.38157 

40.54 

70.5 

1.35403 

38.38 

74  9 

1  38222 

40.59 

70.6 

1.35466 

38.43 

75.0 

1.38287 

40  64 

70.7 

1  35530 

38.48 

75.1 

1.38352 

40.69 

70.8' 

1  35593 

38.53 

75.2 

1.38417 

40  74 

70.9 

1  35656 

38.58 

75.3 

1.38482 

40.79 

71.0 

1.35720 

38  63 

75.4 

1  38547 

40.84 

71.1 

1.35783 

38.68 

75  5 

1.38612 

40  89 

71.2 

1.35847 

38.73 

75.6 

1  38677 

40.94 

71.3 

1.35910 

38  78 

75.7 

1.38743 

40.99 

71.4 

1.35974 

38  83 

75  8 

1  .  38808 

41.04 

71.5 

1.36037 

38  88 

75.9 

1.38873 

41.09 

71.6 

1.36101 

38.93 

76  0 

1  .  38939 

41.14 

71.7 

1.36164 

38.98 

76.1 

1  .  39004 

41.19 

71.8 

1.36228 

39.03 

76.2 

1  39070 

41  24 

71.9 

1  .  36292 

39.08 

76  3 

1.39135 

41  29 

72.0 

1.36355 

39  13 

76.4 

1.39201 

41.33 

72.1 

1.36419 

39.19 

76  5 

1  39266 

41  38 

72.2 

1  .  36483 

39.24 

76.6 

1.39332 

41.43 

72.3 

1  36547 

39.29 

76.7 

1.39397 

41.48 

72.4 

1.36611 

39  34 

76.8 

1.39463 

41  53 

72  5 

.36675 

39.39 

76.9 

1  39529 

41.58 

72  6 

.36739 

39.44 

77.0 

1.39595 

41.63 

72.7 

36803 

39.49 

77.1 

1.39660 

41.68 

72  8 

.36867 

39.54 

77.2 

1.39726 

41.73 

72.9 

.36931 

39.59 

77.3 

1.39792 

71.78 

73.0 

.36995 

39  64 

77.4 

1.39858 

41  83 

73.1 

37059 

39.69 

77.5 

1.39924 

41.88 

73.2 

.37124 

39.74 

77.6 

1.39990 

41.93 

73.3 

.37188 

39.79 

77.7 

1  .  40056 

41.98 

73.4 

1.37252 

39.84    • 

77.8 

1  .  40122 

42.03 

73.5 

1.37317 

39.89 

77.9 

1  .  40188 

42.08 

73-6 

1.37381 

39.94 

78.0 

1  .  40254 

42.13 

73  7 

1.37446 

39.99 

78.1 

1  .  40321 

42.18 

73.8 

1.37510 

40.04 

78  2 

1  .  40387 

42.23 

73.9 

1.37575 

40.09 

78.3 

1  .  40453 

42.28 

TABLE  II.— CON. 


187 


Degrees 
Brix. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Degrees 
Baurae. 

Degrees 
Brix. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Degrees 
Baume. 

78.4 

1  .  40520 

42.32 

82.8 

.43478 

44.48 

78.5 

.  40586 

42.37 

82.9 

43546 

44.53 

78.6 

.40652 

42.42 

83  0 

.  43614 

44.58 

78.7 

.40719 

42.47 

83.1 

.43682 

44.62 

78.8 

.40785 

42.52 

83.2 

.43750 

44.67 

78.9 

.40852 

42.57 

83.3 

.43819 

44.72 

79.0 

.40918 

42.62 

83.4 

.43887 

44.77 

79.1 

1.40985 

42.67 

83  5 

.43955 

44.82 

79.2 

1.41052 

42.72 

83.6 

.44024 

44.87 

79.3 

1.41118 

42.77 

83.7 

.44092 

44.91 

79.4 

1.41185 

42.82 

83.8 

.44161 

44.% 

79.5 

1.41252 

42.87 

83.9 

.44229 

45.01 

79.6 

1.41318 

42.92 

84  0 

.44298 

45.06 

79.7 

1.41385 

42.96 

84.1 

.44367 

45.11 

79.8 

1  .  41452 

43.01 

84.2 

.44435 

45.16 

79.9 

1  41519 

43.06 

84.3 

1.44504 

45.21 

80.0 

1  .  41586 

43.11 

84.4 

1.44573 

45.25 

80.1 

1.41653 

43.16 

84.5 

1.44641 

45.30 

80.2 

1.41720 

43.21 

84.6 

1.44710 

45.35 

80  3 

1.41787 

43.26 

84.7 

1.44779 

45.40 

80.4 

1.41854 

43.31 

84.8 

1  .  44848 

45.45 

80.5 

1.41921 

43.36 

84.9 

1  .  44917 

45.49 

80.6 

1.41989 

43.41 

85.0 

1.44986 

45.54 

80.7 

1.42056 

43.45 

85  1 

1  .  45055 

45.59 

80.8 

1.42123 

43.50 

85.2 

1.45124 

45  64 

-  80.9 

1.42190 

43.55 

85.3 

'   1.45193 

45.69 

81.0 

1.42258 

43.60 

85.4 

1.45262 

45.74 

81.1 

1.42325 

43.65 

85.5 

1.45331 

45.78 

81.2 

1.42393 

43.70 

85.6 

.45401 

45.83 

81.3 

1.42460 

43.75 

85.7 

.45470 

45.88 

81.4 

1.42528 

43.80 

85.8 

45539 

45.93 

81.5 

1.42595 

43.85 

85.9 

.45609 

45  98 

81.6 

1.42663 

43.89 

86.0 

.45678 

46.02 

81.7 

1.42731 

43.94 

86.1 

1.45748 

46.07 

81.8 

1.42798 

43.99 

86.2 

1.45817 

46.12 

81.9 

1.42866 

44.04 

86.3 

1  45887 

46.17 

82.0 

1.42934 

44.09 

86.4 

1.45956 

46  22 

82.1 

1.43002 

44.14 

86  5 

1  46026 

46.26 

82.2 

1  .  43070 

44.19 

86.6 

1.46095 

46.31 

82  3 

1.43137 

44.24 

86.7 

1  .  46165 

46  36 

82  4 

1.43205 

44.28 

86.8 

1.46235 

46.41 

82.5 

1.43273 

44.33 

86.9 

1.46304 

46.46 

82  6 

1.43341 

44.38 

87  0 

1.46374 

46.50 

82.7 

1.43409 

44.43 

87.1 

1.46444 

46.55 

i88 


TABLE  II.— CON. 


Degrees 
Brix. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Degrees 
Baume 

Degrees 
Brix. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Degrees 
Baume. 

87.2 

1.46514 

46.60 

91.6 

1.49628 

48.68 

87.3 

1.46584 

46.65 

91.7 

1.49700 

48.73 

87.4 

1.46654 

46.69 

91.8 

1.49771 

48.78 

87.5 

1.46724 

46  74 

91.9 

1  .  49843 

48.82 

87.6 

1.46794 

46  79 

92.0 

1.49915 

48.87 

87.7 

1.46864 

46.84 

92.1 

1.49987 

48.92 

87.8 

1.46934 

46  88 

92.2 

1.50058 

48.96 

87.9 

1.47004 

46.93 

92.3 

1.50130 

49.01 

88  0 

1.47074 

46.98 

92.4 

1.50202 

49  06 

88.1 

1  47145 

47  03 

.     92  5 

1  50274 

49  11 

88  2 

1  47215 

47.08 

92.6 

1.50346 

49.15 

88.3 

1.47285 

47.12 

92.7 

1  50419 

49.20 

88.4 

1.47356 

47.17 

92.8 

1.50491 

49  25 

88.5 

1.47426 

47.22 

92  9 

1  50563 

49  29 

88.6 

1  .  47496 

47.27 

93  0 

1.50635 

49.34 

88  7 

1.47567 

47.31 

93.1 

1.50707 

.    49.39 

88.8 

1.47637 

47.36 

93  2 

1.50779 

49  43 

88  9 

1  47708 

47  41 

93.3 

.50852 

49.48 

89  0 

1.47778 

47.46 

93.4 

.50924 

49  53 

89.1 

1.47849 

47  50 

93  5 

.50996 

49.57 

89  2 

1  47920 

47.55 

93.6 

.51069 

49.62 

89  3 

1  47991 

47.60 

93.7 

.51141 

49.67 

89.4 

1.48061 

47.65 

93.8 

.51214 

49.71 

89.5 

1  48132 

47.69 

93.9 

.51286 

49  76 

89.6 

1.48203 

47.74 

94.0 

.51359 

49.81 

89.7 

1.48274 

47.79 

94.1 

1.51431 

49  85 

89.8 

1  48345 

47.83 

94  2 

1.51504 

49.90 

89.9 

1.48416 

47.88 

94.3 

1.51577 

49.94 

90.0 

1.48486 

47.93 

94.4 

1  51649 

49.99 

90  1 

1.48558 

47  98 

94.5 

1.51722 

50.04 

90  2 

1  48629 

48.02 

94  6 

1.51795 

50.08 

90.3 

1.4S700 

48  07 

94.7 

1.51868 

50.13 

90.4 

1  48771 

48.12 

94.8 

1  51941 

50  18 

90.5 

1.48842 

48.17 

94.9 

1.52014 

50.22 

90.6 

1.48913 

48  21 

95.0 

1  52087 

50.27 

90  7 

1  .  48985 

48.26 

95.1 

1.52159 

50  32 

90.8 

1.49056 

48.31 

95.2 

1.52232 

50.36 

90.9 

1  .  49127 

48.35 

95.3 

1.52304 

50.41 

91.0 

1.49199 

48.40 

95.4 

1.52376 

50.45 

91  1 

1  49270 

48.45 

95.5 

1  52449 

50.50 

91.2 

1.49342 

48.50 

95.6 

1  .  52521 

50.55 

91.3 

1.49413 

48.54 

95.7 

1.52593 

50.59 

91.4 

1  49485 

48.59 

95.8 

1.52665 

50.64 

91  5 

1.49556 

48.64 

95  9 

1.52738 

50.69 

TABLE  II.— CON, 


189 


Degrees 
Brix. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Degrees 
Baume. 

Degrees 
Brix. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Degrees 
Baume. 

96.0 

1.52810 

50.73 

98.1 

1.54365 

51.70 

96.1 

1.52884 

50.78 

98.2 

1  54440 

51.74 

96.2 

1.52958 

50.82 

98.3 

1  55515 

51.79 

96.3 

1  53032 

50.87 

98.4 

.54590 

51.83 

96.4 

1.53106 

50.92 

98.5 

.54665 

51.88 

96  5 

1.53180 

50.96 

98.6 

.54740 

51.92 

96  6 

1.53254 

51.01 

98.7 

.54815 

51.97 

96  7 

1.53328 

51  05 

98.8 

.54890 

52.01 

96.8 

1.53402 

51.10 

98.9 

.54965 

52.06 

96  9 

1.53476 

51.15 

99.0 

1.55040 

52  11 

97  0 

1.53550 

51.19 

99.1 

1.55115 

52.15 

97.1 

1.53624 

51.24 

99.2 

1.55189 

52.20 

97.2 

1.53698 

51  28 

99.3 

1.55264 

52.24 

97  3 

1.53772 

51  33 

99.4 

1.55338 

52.29 

97.4 

1.53846 

51  38 

99.5 

1.55413 

52.33 

97.5 

1.53920 

51  42 

99.6 

1.55487 

52  38 

97.6 

1.53994 

51.47 

99.7 

1.55562 

52.42 

97.7 

1.54068 

51  51 

99.8 

1.55636 

52.47 

97.8 

1.54142 

51.56 

•99.9 

1.55711 

52.51 

97.9 

1  .  -S4216 

51  60 

100.0 

1.55785 

52.56 

98.0 

1.54290 

51.65 

190 


TABLE  III. 

FOR  MAKING  "KNOWN  SUGAR"  SOLUTIONS. 


Polari- 

Grammes  C.  P. 

Polari- 

Grammes  C.  P. 

Polari- 

Grammes  C.  P. 

scope 
Degrees. 

Sugar  in 
lOOcc  Solution. 

scope 
Degrees 

Sugar  in 
lOOcc  Solution. 

scope 
Degrees. 

Sugar  in 
lOOcc  Solution. 

1 

0.260 

35 

9.097 

69 

17.954 

2 

0.519 

36 

9.357 

70 

18.216 

3 

0.779 

37 

9.618 

71 

18.476 

4 

1.039 

38 

9.878 

72 

18.738 

5 

1  298 

39 

10.138 

73 

18.998 

6 

1.558 

40 

10  .  398 

74 

19  .  259 

7 

1.817 

41 

10.659 

75 

19.519 

8 

2.078 

42 

10  919 

76 

19.781 

9 

2  337 

43 

11.180 

77 

20.042 

10 

2.597 

44 

11.440 

78 

20.302 

11 

2.857 

45 

11.701 

79 

20.564 

12 

3.117 

46 

11.961 

80 

20.824 

13 

3.376 

47     • 

12.222 

81 

21.085 

14 

3.637 

48 

12.482 

82 

21.346 

15 

3.896 

49 

12.743 

83 

21  .  608 

16 

4.156 

50 

13.003- 

84 

21  868 

17 

4.416 

51 

13.264 

85 

22.130 

18 

4.676 

52 

13.524 

86 

22.391 

19 

4.936 

53 

13.784 

87 

22.652 

20 

5  196 

54 

14.044 

88 

22.912 

21 

5.456 

55 

14.305 

89 

23.174 

22 

5.716 

56 

14.566 

90 

23  435 

23 

5.976 

57 

14.826 

91 

23.696 

24 

6  236 

58 

15.087 

92 

23.957 

25 

6.496 

59 

15.347 

93 

24  .  219 

26 

6.756 

60 

15.608 

94 

24  .  480 

27 

7.016 

61 

15.868 

95 

24  742 

28 

7.276 

62 

16.130 

96 

25.002 

29 

7.536 

63 

16  .  390 

97 

25  265 

30 

7.796 

64 

16.651 

98 

25.525 

31 

8.056 

65 

16.912 

99 

25.787 

32 

8.316 

66 

17.173 

100 

26.048 

33 

8.577 

67 

17.433 

34 

8.837 

68 

17.694 

TABLE  IV. 

PER  CENT.  SUGAR  IN  PULP  BY   THE   VOLUMETRIC  METHOD. 


Pol. 

PrCent 
Sugar 

Pol. 

PrCent 
Sugar 

Pol. 

PrCent 
Sugar. 

Pol. 

PrCent 
Sugar. 

Pol. 

Pr  Cent 
Sugar. 

05 

.014 

1  45 

.415 

2  85 

.817 

4  25 

1.218 

5  65 

.619 

.10 

029 

1  50 

.430 

2  90 

.831 

4  30 

1  232 

5  70 

633 

.15 

.043 

1  55 

.444 

2.95 

845 

4.35 

1  246 

5.75 

648 

.20 

.057 

1.60 

.458 

3.00 

.860 

4.40 

1  261 

5.80 

.662 

.25 

072 

1.65 

.473 

3  05 

.874 

4.45 

1.275 

5  85 

676 

.30 

.086 

70 

.487 

3  10 

.888 

4  50 

1.289 

5  90 

.691 

.35 

100 

75 

501 

3  15 

.903 

4  55 

1  304 

5  95 

.705 

.40 

.115 

80 

.516 

3  20 

.917 

4.60 

1  318 

6.00 

719 

.45 

129 

.85 

.530 

3  25 

.931 

4  65 

1  332 

6  05 

.733 

.50 

.143 

90 

.544 

3  30 

.946 

4  70 

1  347 

6  10 

.748 

.55 

.158 

95 

.559 

3  35 

.960 

4.75 

1.361 

6.15 

762 

.60 

.172 

2.00 

.573 

3.40 

974 

4.80 

1  375 

6  20 

776 

.65 

.186 

2  05 

.587 

3.45 

.989 

4  85 

1  390 

6  25 

1  791 

.70 

201 

2  10 

.602 

3  50 

1  003 

4.90 

1.404 

6.30 

1  805 

.75 

215 

2  15 

.616 

3.55 

1.017 

4  95 

1.418 

6.35 

1.819 

.80 

229 

2.20 

.630 

3.60 

1.032 

5.00 

1  433 

6  40 

1  834 

.85 

.244 

2  25 

.645 

3  65 

1.046 

5  05 

1.447 

6.45 

1.848 

.90 

258 

2  30 

.659 

3.70 

1  060 

5  10 

1.461 

6  50 

1  862 

.95 

.272 

2  35 

673 

3.75 

1  074 

5  15 

1.476 

6  55 

1  877 

1.00 

287 

2.40 

.688 

3.80 

1.089 

5  20 

1  490 

6.60 

1.891 

1.05 

.301 

2.45 

.702 

3.85 

1.103 

5.25 

1.504 

6.65 

1  905 

1.10 

.315 

2.50 

.716 

3.90 

1.117 

5.30 

1.519 

6.70 

1.920 

1.15 

.330 

2  55 

.731 

3.95 

1.132 

5.35 

1.533 

6  75 

1.934 

1  20 

.344 

2  60 

.745 

4.00 

1.146 

5  40 

1.547 

6.80 

1.948 

25 

.358 

2.65 

.759 

4.05 

1.160 

5.45 

1.562 

6.85 

1.963 

.30 

.372 

2.70 

.773 

4.10 

1  175 

5.50 

1.576 

6.90 

1  977 

35 

.387 

2.75 

.788 

4.15 

1.189 

5.55 

1.590 

6.95 

1  991 

40 

.401 

2.80 

.802 

4.20 

1.203 

5.60 

1.605 

7.00 

2.006 

I92 


TABLE 


ESTIMATION   OF   PERCENTAGE    OF   SUGAR   BY   VOLUMETRIC 

METHOD 


DEGREE  BRIX 
From  05  to  12  0. 

Polari- 

APPROXIMATE 

Tenths  of 

Per  Cent 

scope 
Degrees 

O.5 

l.O 

1  5 

20 

8.5 

3.O 

3.5 

4.0 

4.5 

a  Degree. 

Sucrose. 

0.1° 

0.03 

1° 

0  29 

0  29 

0.29 

0.28 

0.28 

0.28 

0.28 

0.28 

0.28 

0  2 

0  06 

2 

0  57 

0.57 

0  57 

0.57 

0.56 

0.56 

0.56 

0.56 

0.3 

0  08 

3 

0.85 

0.85 

0  85 

0.85 

0.85 

0.85 

0.84 

0.84 

0.4 

0  11 

4 

1   14 

1.13 

1.13 

1.13 

1.13 

1.13 

1.12 

0.5 

0  14 

5 

1   42 

1  42 

1.41 

1.41 

1.41 

1.41 

1.40 

0.6 

0.17 

6 

1  70 

1  70 

1.69 

1.69 

1.69 

1.68 

0.7 

0.19 

7 

1  98 

1.98 

1.98 

1.97 

1.97 

1.96 

0.8 

0.22 

8 

2  26 

2.26 

2.26 

2.25 

2.25 

0.9 

0.25 

9 

2.54 

2.54 

2.53 

2.53 

10 

2.82 

2.82 

2.81 

2.81 

11 

3.10 

3.09 

3.09 

12 

3.38 

3.38 

3.37 

13 

3.66 

3.65 

14 

3  94 

3  93 

DEGREE  BRIX. 

15 

4.21 

From  12.5  to  20.0. 

16 

4.49 

17 

Tenths  of 

Percent. 

18 

a  Degree. 

Sucrose. 

19 

0.1° 

0  03 

20 
71 

0.2 

0.05 

22 

0.3 

0  08 

23 

0.4 

0.11 

04 

0.5 

0.13 

25 

0  6 

0.16 

26 

0.7 

0.19 

27 

0.8 

0.21 

28 

0.9 

0  24 

29 

30 

31 

32 

33 

34 

35 

36 

37 

38 

39 

v.  I93 

FOR  USE  WITH  SOLUTIONS    PREPARED   BY   ADDITION   OF  10 
PER  CENT.  LEAD  ACETATE.— (SCHMITZ.) 


DEGREI 

I   BRI3 

c. 

Polanscope 

Degrees. 

5  0 

5.5 

6.0 

6.5 

7.O 

7.5 

8.O 

8.5 

9.O 

9.5 

10  0 

0  28 

0.28 

0.28 

0.28 

0.28 

0.28 

0.28 

0.28 

028 

028 

028 

1° 

056 

0.56 

056 

0.56 

0.56 

0.55 

055 

055 

0.55 

0.55 

055 

2 

0.84 

084 

084 

0.84 

0.83 

0.83 

083 

083 

083 

0.83 

0.82 

3 

1.12 

1.12 

1.12 

1  11 

1.11 

1.11 

1  11 

1.11 

1.10 

1  10 

1.10 

4 

1.40 

140 

1  40 

1.39 

1  39 

1.39 

1  38 

1.38 

1.38 

1  38 

1.37 

5 

1  68 

1.68 

1.67 

1.67 

1.67 

166 

1.66 

166 

1.66 

1.65 

1.65 

6 

1.96 

1  96 

1  95 

1.95 

1.95 

1.94 

1  94 

1.93 

1.93 

1.93 

1.92 

7 

224 

224 

223 

2.23 

222 

222 

222 

221 

221 

2.20 

2.20 

8 

252 

2.52 

251 

2.51 

250 

250 

2.49 

249 

248 

2.48 

2.47 

9 

2.80 

2.80 

279 

279 

2.78 

2.78 

2.77 

2.76 

2.76 

2.75 

2.75 

10 

3.08 

308 

307 

306 

306 

305 

305 

304 

3.03 

3.03 

3.02 

11 

3.36 

3  36 

3.35 

3.34 

3.34 

3.33 

3.32 

3  32 

3.31 

3.30 

3.30 

12 

3.64 

3.64 

3.63 

362 

3.61 

3.61 

3.60 

3.59 

3.59 

3.58 

357 

13 

3.92 

3.92 

3.91 

3  90 

389 

3.88 

388 

3  87 

3.86 

385 

3.85 

14 

420 

4  19 

4.19 

4  18 

4.17 

4  16 

4  15 

4  15 

4.14 

4  13 

4  12 

15 

4.48 

447 

4  47 

4.46 

4  45 

4.44 

4.43 

4  42 

4.41 

440 

4.40 

16 

4.77 

476 

475 

4  74 

473 

4.72 

471 

470 

469 

468 

467 

17 

5.03 

502 

5.01 

5  00 

4.99 

4.99 

497 

497 

496 

4.95 

18 

5.32 

531 

529 

5.28 

5.27 

526 

525 

524 

523 

522 

19 

5.58 

5.57 

5.56 

555 

5.54 

553 

552 

551 

550 

20 

5.86 

5.85 

5.84 

5.83 

582 

5.81 

5.79 

5.78 

5.77 

21 

6.13 

6.12 

6  11 

6.09 

608 

607 

6.06 

6.05 

22 

641 

6.40 

638 

6.37 

636 

635 

6.33 

6.32 

23 

667 

6.66 

6.65 

6.64 

662 

661 

660 

24 

6  94 

693 

6.91 

690 

689 

687 

25 

722 

7.20 

7.19 

7.17 

7.16 

7.15 

26 

7.48 

7.46 

7.45 

7  44 

742 

27 

7.76 

7.74 

7.73 

7.71 

7.70 

28 

802 

800 

7.99 

7.97 

29 

8.28 

826 

8.25 

30 

855 

854 

852 

31 

883 

881 

880 

32 

9.09 

907 

33 

935 

34 

962 

35 

36 

37 

38 

39 

194 


TABLE 


DEGREE  BRIX. 

§•« 

APPROXIMATE 

From  0.5  to  12.0. 

»i 

Tenths  of 

Per  Cent. 

'£  tit 

1O  5 

11.0 

11.5 

13.  0 

13  5 

13  0 

13.5 

14.0 

11  5 

a  Degree. 

Sucrose. 

£ 

0.1° 

0.03 

1° 

0.28 

0  27 

0  27 

0  27 

0.27 

0.27 

0.27 

0.27 

0.27 

0.2 

0  06 

2 

0.55 

0  55 

6.55 

0.55 

0.54 

0.54 

0  54 

0.54 

0.54 

0  3 

0.08 

3 

0.82 

0.82 

0  82 

0  82 

0.82 

0.81 

0  81 

0  81 

0  81 

0.4 

0.11 

4 

1.10 

1.10 

1.09 

1.09 

1.09 

1.09 

1.08 

1.08 

1.08 

0.5 

0.14 

5 

1.37 

1.37 

1.36 

1.36 

1.36 

1.36 

1.35 

1.35 

1.35 

0.6 

0.17 

6 

1.64 

1.64 

1.64 

1.64 

1.63 

1.63 

1.62 

1.62 

1.62 

0.7 

0.19 

7 

1.92 

1.91 

1.91 

1.91 

1.90 

1.90 

1.89 

1.89 

1.89 

0.8 

0.22 

8 

2.19 

2.19 

2.18 

2.18 

2.18 

2.17 

2.17 

2.16 

2.16 

0.9 

0.25 

9 

2.47 

2.46 

2.46 

2.45 

2.45 

2.44 

2.44 

2.43 

2.43 

10 

2.74 

2.74 

2.73 

2.73 

2.72 

2.71 

2.71 

2.70 

2.70 

11 

3.02 

3.01 

3.00 

3.00 

2.99 

2.99 

2.98 

2.97 

2.97 

12 

3.29 

3.28 

3.28 

3.27 

3.26 

3.26 

3.25 

3.24 

3.24 

13 

3.56 

3.56 

3.55 

3.54 

3.54 

3.53 

3.52 

3.51 

3.51 

14 

3.84 

3.83 

3.82 

3.82 

3.81 

3.80 

3.79 

3.78 

3.78 

15 

4  11 

4.11 

4.10 

4.09 

4.08 

4.07 

4.06 

4.06 

4.05 

DEGREE  BRIX. 
From  12  5  to  20  0. 

16 

4.39 

4.38 

4.37 

4.36 

4.35 

4.34 

4.33 

4.33 

4.32 

17 

4.66 

4.65 

4.64 

4.63 

4.62 

4.62 

4.61 

4.60 

4.59 

18 

4.93 

4.93 

4.91 

4.91 

4.90 

4.89 

4.88 

4.87 

4.86 

Tenths  of 
a  Degree. 

Per  Cent. 
Sucrose. 

19 

5.21 

5.20 

5.19 

5  18 

5.17 

5.16 

5.15 

5.14 

5.13 

20 

5.49 

5.47 

5.46 

5.45 

5.44 

5.43 

5.42 

5.41 

5.40 

0.1° 

0.03 

21 

5.76 

5.75 

5.74 

5.73 

5.71 

5.70 

5.69 

5.68 

5.67 

0.2 

0.05 

22 

6.03 

6.02 

6.01 

6.00 

5.99 

5.97 

5.96 

5.95 

5.94 

0.3 

0.08 

23 

6.31 

6.30 

6.28 

6.27 

6  26 

6.24 

6.23 

6.22 

6.21 

0.4 

0.11 

24 

6.58 

6.57 

6.56 

6.54 

6.53 

6.52 

6.50 

6.49 

6.48 

0.5 

0.13 

25 

6.86 

6.84 

6.83 

6.82 

6.80 

6.79 

6.78 

6.76 

6.75 

0.6 

0.16 

26 

7.13 

7.12 

7.10 

7.09 

7  07 

7.06 

7.05 

7.03 

7.02 

0.7 

0.19 

27 

7.41 

7.39 

7.38 

7.36 

7.35 

7.33 

7.32 

7.30 

7.29 

0.8 

0.21 

28 

7.68 

7.66 

7.65 

7.63 

7.62 

7.60 

7.59 

7.57 

7.56 

0.9 

0.24 

29 

7.96 

7.94 

7.92 

7.91 

7.89 

7.87 

7.86 

7.84 

7.83 

30 

8.23 

8.21 

8.20 

8.18 

8,16 

8.15 

8.13 

8.11 

8.10 

31 

8.50 

8.49 

8.47 

8.45 

8.44 

8.42 

8.40 

8.39 

8.37 

32 

8.78 

8.76 

8.74 

8.73 

8.71 

8.69 

8.67 

8.66 

8.64 

33 

9.05 

9.03 

9.02 

9.00 

8.98 

8.96 

8.94 

8.93 

8.91 

34 

9.33 

9.31 

9.29 

9.27 

9.25 

9.23 

9.22 

9.20 

9.18 

35 

9.60 

9.58 

9.56 

9.54 

9.53 

9.51 

9.49 

9.47 

9.45 

36 

9.88 

9.86 

9.84 

9.82 

9.80 

9.78 

9.76 

9.74 

9.72 

37 

10.15 

10.13 

10.11 

10.09 

10.07 

10.05 

10.03 

10.01 

9.99 

38 

10.40 

10.38 

10.36 

10.34 

10.32 

10.30 

10.28 

10.26 

39 

10.68 

10.66 

10.64 

10.61 

10.59 

10.57 

10.55 

10.53 

V.— CON. 


DEGREE  BRIX. 

o  $ 

15.O 

15.5 

16.0 

16.5 

17.0 

17.5 

18.O 

18.5 

19.0 

19.5 

30.0 

•5P 

ft 

0  77 

0  27 

0  27 

0  27 

0  27 

0  27 

0  27 

0  27    0.27 

0.27 

0  26 

1° 

0  54 

0  54 

0  54 

0  54 

0  53 

0  53 

0  53 

0.53!  0.53 

0.53 

0  53 

2 

0.81 

0.81 

0.80 

0.80 

0.80 

0.80 

0.80 

0.80!  0.79 

0.79 

0.79 

3 

1.08 

1.08 

1.07 

1.07 

1.07 

1.07 

1.06 

1.06    1.06 

1.06 

1.06 

4 

1.35 

1.34 

1.34 

1.34 

1.34 

1.33 

1.33 

1.33 

1.32 

1.32 

1.32 

5 

1.62 

1.61 

1.61 

1.61 

1.60 

1.60 

1.60 

1.59 

1.59 

1.59 

1.58 

6 

1.88 

1.88!  1.88 

1.87 

1.87 

1.86 

1.86 

1.86 

1.85 

1.85 

1.85 

7 

2.15 

2.15 

2.15 

2.14 

2.14 

2.13 

2.13 

2.12 

2.12 

2.12 

2.11 

8 

2.42 

2.42 

2.41 

2.41 

2.40 

2.40 

2.39 

2.39 

2.38 

2.38 

2.37 

9 

2.69 

2.69 

2.68 

2.68 

2.67 

2.67 

2.66 

2.65 

2.65 

2.64 

2.64 

10 

2.96 

2.95 

2.95 

2.94 

2.94 

2.93 

2.92 

2.92 

2.91 

2.91 

2.90 

11 

3.23 

3.22 

3.22 

3  21 

3.20 

3.20 

3.19 

3.18 

3.18 

3.17 

3.17 

12 

3.50 

3.49 

3.49 

3.48 

3.47 

3.46 

3.46 

3.45 

3.44 

3.44 

3.43 

13 

3.77 

3.76J  3.75 

3.75 

3.74 

3.73 

3.72 

3.72 

3.71 

3.70 

3.69 

14 

4.04 

4.03 

4.02 

4.02 

4.01 

4.00 

3.99 

3.98 

3.97 

3.97 

3.96 

15 

4.31 

4.30 

4.29 

4.28 

4.27 

4.26 

4.26 

4.25 

4.24 

4.23 

4.22 

16 

4.58 

4.57 

4.56 

4.55 

4.54 

4.53 

4.52 

4.51 

4.50 

4.49 

4.48 

17 

4.85 

4.84 

4.83 

4.82 

4.81 

4.80 

4.79 

4.  78'  4.77 

4.76 

4.75 

18 

5.12 

5.11 

5.10 

5.09 

5.08 

5.06 

5  05 

5.04 

5.03 

5.02 

5.01 

19 

5.39 

5.38 

5.36 

5.35 

5.34 

5.33 

5.32 

5.31 

5.30 

5.29 

5.28 

20 

5.66 

5.65 

5.63 

5.62 

5.61 

5.60 

5.59 

5.58 

5.56 

5.55 

5.54 

21 

5.93 

5.91 

5.90 

5.89 

5.88 

5.87 

5.85 

5.84 

5.83 

5.82 

5.80 

22 

6.20 

6.18 

6.17 

6.16 

6.14 

6.13 

6.12 

6.11 

6.09 

6.08 

6.07 

23 

6.46 

6.45 

6.44 

6.43 

6.41 

6.40 

6.39 

6,37 

6.36 

6.35 

6.33 

24 

6.73 

6.72 

6.71 

6.69 

6.68 

6.67 

6.65 

6.64 

6.63 

6.61 

6.60 

25 

7.00 

6.99 

6.97 

6.96 

6.95 

6.93 

6.92 

6.90 

6.89 

6.88 

6.86 

26 

7.27 

7.26 

7.24 

7.23 

7.21 

7.20 

7.18 

7.17 

7.15 

7.14 

7.13 

27 

7.54 

7.53 

7.51 

7.50 

7.48 

7.47 

7.45 

7.44 

7.42 

7.40 

7.39 

28 

7.81 

7.80 

7.78 

7.77 

-7.75 

7.73 

7.72 

7.70 

7.68 

7.67 

7.65    29 

8.08 

8.06 

8.05 

8.03 

8.02 

8.00 

7.98 

7.97 

7.95 

7.93 

7.92 

30 

8.35 

8.33 

8.32 

8.30 

8.28 

8.27 

8.25 

8.23 

8.21 

8.20 

8.18 

31 

8.62 

8.60 

8.58 

8.57 

8.55 

8.53 

8.51 

8.50 

8.48 

8.46 

8.45 

32 

8.89 

8.87 

8.85 

8.84 

8.82 

8.80 

8.78 

8.76 

8.75 

8.73 

8.71 

33 

9.16 

9.14    9.12 

9.10 

9.09 

9.07 

9.05 

9.03 

9.01 

8.99 

8.97 

34 

9.43 

9.41(  9.39 

9.37 

9.35 

9.34 

9.31 

9.30 

9.28 

9.26 

9.24 

35 

9.70 

9.681  9.66 

9.64 

9.62 

9.60 

9.58 

9.56 

9.54 

9.52 

9.50 

36 

9.97 

9.95 

9.93 

9.91 

9.89 

9.87 

9.85 

9.83 

9.81 

9.79 

9.77 

37 

10  .  24 

10.22 

10.20 

10.18 

10.15 

10.13 

10.11 

10.09 

10.07 

10.05 

10.03 

38 

10.51 

10.49 

10.46 

10.44 

10.42 

10.40 

10.38 

10.36 

10.34 

10.32 

10.29 

39 

196 


TABLE 


DEGREE  BRIX. 

*« 

APPROXIMATE 

From  11.5  TO  22  5 

JSs 

Tenths  of 

Per  Cent 

J3£ 
op 

11.5 

12.  0 

13.5 

13.O 

13.5 

14.O 

a  Degree. 

Sucrose. 

^ 

40° 

10.93 

10.91 

10.89 

10.86 

10.84 

10.82 

0.1° 

0.03 

41 

11.18 

11.16 

11.14 

11.12 

11.09 

0.2 

0.05 

42 

11.46 

11.43 

11.41 

11.39 

11.36 

0.3 

0.08 

43 

11.71 

11.68 

11.66 

11.64 

0.4 

0.11 

44 

11.98 

11.95 

11.93 

11.91 

0.5 

0.13 

45 

12.25 

12.23 

12.20 

12.18 

0.6 

0.16 

46 

12.50 

12.47 

12.45 

0.7 

0.19 

47 

12.74 

12.72 

0.8 

0.21 

48 

13.02 

12.99 

0.9 

0.24 

49 

13.26 

50 

51 

52 

53 

54 

DEGREE  BRIX. 

55 

Cf> 

From  23.0  to  24.0 

OlJ 

57 

Tenths  of  Per  Ceut. 

58 

a  Degree.     Sucrose. 

59 

I 

60 

0.1°         0.03 

61 

0.2            0.05 

62 

0.3            0.08 

63 

0.4 

0.10 

64 

0.5 

0.13 

65 

0.6 

0.16 

66 

0.7 

0.18 

67  , 

0.8 

0.21 

68 

0.9 

0.23 

69 

70 

71 

7.2 

73 

74 

75 

76 

77 

78 

79 

80 

V.— CON. 


DEGREE  BRIX. 

§•« 

14.5 

15.  0 

15.5 

16.  0 

16.5 

17.0 

17.5 

11 

fc 

10.80 

10.78 

10.76 

10.73 

10.71 

10.69 

10.67 

40 

11.07 

11.05 

11.03 

11.00 

10.98 

10.96 

10.94 

41 

11.34 

11.32 

11.29 

11.27 

11.25 

11.23 

11.20 

42 

11.61 

11.59 

11.56 

11.54 

11.52 

11.49 

11.47 

43 

11.88 

11.86 

11.83 

11.81 

11.79 

11.76 

11.74 

44 

12.15 

12.13 

12.10 

12.08 

12.05 

12.03 

12.01 

45 

12.42 

12.40 

12.37 

12.35 

12.32 

12.30 

12.27 

46 

12.69 

12.67 

12.64 

12.61 

12.59 

12.56 

12.54 

47 

12.97 

12.94 

12.91 

12.88 

12.86 

12.83 

42.81 

48 

13.23 

13.21 

13.18 

13.15 

13.13 

13.10 

13.07 

49 

13.50 

13.48 

13.45 

13.42 

13.40 

13.37 

13.34 

50 

13.78 

13.75 

13.72 

13.69 

13.66 

13.64 

13.61 

51 

14.02 

13.99 

13.96 

13.93 

13.90 

13.88 

52 

14.29 

14.26 

14.23 

14.20 

14.17 

14.14 

53 

14.53 

14.50 

14.47 

14.44 

14.41 

54 

14.80 

14.77 

14.74 

14.71 

14.68 

55 

15.03 

15.00 

14.97 

14.94 

56 

15.30 

15.27 

15.24 

15.21 

57 

15.57 

15.54 

15.51 

15.48 

58 

15.81 

15.78 

15.75 

59 

16.05 

16.01 

60 

16.31 

16.28 

61 

16.55 

62 

16.82 

63 

64 

65 

66 

67 

68 

69 

70 

71 

72 

73 

74 

75 

76 

77 

78 

79 

80 

1 98 


TABLE 


DEGREE  BRIX. 

& 

APPROXIMATE 

From  11.5  to  22  5. 

4.    <U 

'J3  60 

Tenths  of 

PerCent. 

Cti    qj 

18.0 

18.5 

19.  0 

19.5 

30.O 

30.5 

a  Degree  . 

Sucrose. 

2Q 

40° 

10.64 

10.62 

10.60 

10.58 

10.56 

10.54 

0.1° 

0.03 

41 

10.91 

10.89 

10.87 

10.85 

10.82 

10.80 

0.2 

0.05 

42 

11.18 

11.16 

11.13 

11.11 

11.09 

11.07 

0.3 

0.08      43 

11.45 

11.42 

11.40 

11  38 

11.35 

11.33 

0.4 

0.11      44 

11.71 

11.69 

11  66 

11  64 

11.62 

11.59 

0.5 

0.13      45 

11.98 

11.96 

11.93 

11.91 

11.88 

11.86 

0.6 

0.16 

46 

12.25 

12.22 

12.20 

12.17 

12  15      12.12 

0.7 

0.19 

47 

12  51 

12.49 

12.46 

12.44 

12  41      12.39 

0.8 

0.21 

48 

12.78 

12.75 

12.73 

12  70 

12.67 

12.65 

0.9 

0.24 

49 

13,05 

13.02 

12.99 

12.97 

12  94 

12.91 

50 

13  31 

13  29 

13.26 

13.23 

13.20 

13.18 

51 

13.58 

13.55 

13.52 

13.50 

13.47 

13  44 

52 

13  85 

13.82 

13.79 

13.76 

13.73 

13.70 

53 

14.11 

14.08 

14.05 

14  03 

14.00 

13.97 

54 

14.38 

14.35 

14.32 

14.29 

14.26 

14.23 

55 

14.65 

14.62 

14.59 

14.56 

14.53 

14.50 

DEGREE  BRIX. 
From  23  0  to  24.0. 

56 

57 

14.91 
15.18 

14.88 
15.15 

14.85 
15  12 

14.82 
15.09 

14.79 
15.06 

14.76 
15.02 

Tenths  of 
a  Degree. 

Per  Cent. 
Sucrose. 

58 
59 

15.45 
15.71 

15.42 
15.68 

15.38 
15.65 

15.35 
15.62 

15.32 
15.58 

15.29 
15.55 

60 

15.98 

15  95 

15  92 

15.88 

15.85 

15.82 

0.1° 

0.03   . 

61 

16.25 

16.21 

16.18 

16.15 

16  11 

16.08 

0.2 

0.05 

62 

16.52 

16.48 

16.45 

16.41 

16.38 

16.35 

0.3 

0.08 

63 

16.78 

16.75 

16.71 

16.68 

16.64 

16.61 

0.4 

0.10 

64 

17.05 

17.01 

16.98 

16.94 

16.91 

16.87 

0.5 

0.13 

65 

17  32 

17.28 

17.24 

17.21 

17  17 

17.14 

0.6 

0.16 

66 

17.55 

17.51 

17.47 

17.44 

17.40 

0.7 

0.18 

67 

17.81 

17.78 

17  74 

17.70 

17.67 

0.8 

0.21 

68 

18.04 

18.00 

17.97 

17.93 

0.9 

0.23 

69 

18.31 

18.27 

18.23 

18.19 

70 

18.53 

18.50 

18.46 

71 

18  76 

18.72 

72 

19.03 

18  99 

73 

19.25 

74 

19.52 

75 

19.78 

76 

77 

78 

79 

80 

V.— CON. 


199 


DEGREE  BRIX. 

Polariscope 

Degrees. 

81.0 

21.5 

22.0 

22  5 

230 

23.5 

240 

10.52 

10.49 

10.47 

10.45 

10.43 

10.41 

10.38 

40° 

10.78 

10.76 

10.74 

10.71 

10.69 

10.67 

10.65 

41 

11.04 

11.02 

11.00 

10.97 

10.95 

10.93 

10.90 

42 

11.31 

11.28 

11.26 

11.24 

11.21 

11.19 

11.17 

43 

11.57 

11.55 

11.52 

11.50 

11.47 

11.45 

11.42 

44 

11  83 

11.81 

11.78 

11  76 

11.73 

11.71 

11.69 

45 

12.09 

12.07 

12.05 

12  02 

12  00 

11.97 

11.94 

46 

12  36 

12.33 

12.31 

12.28 

12.26 

12.23 

12  21 

47 

12.62 

12.60 

12.57 

12.54 

12.52 

12.49 

12.47 

48 

12.88 

12.86 

12.83 

12.81 

12.78 

12.75 

12.73 

49 

13.15 

13  12 

13.09 

13.07 

13.04 

13.01 

12.99 

50 

13.41 

13.39 

13.36 

13.33 

13.30 

13.27 

13.25 

51 

13.68 

13.65 

13.62 

13.59 

13.56 

13.53 

13.51 

52 

13.94 

13.91 

13.88 

13.85 

13.82 

13.79 

13.77 

53 

14.20 

14  17 

14.14 

14.11 

14.08 

14.06 

14.02 

54 

14.47 

14.44 

14.41 

14.38 

14.35 

14.32 

14  29 

55 

14.73 

14.70 

14.67 

14.64 

14.61 

14.58 

14.55 

56 

14.99 

14.96 

14.93 

14.90 

14.87 

14.84 

14.81 

57 

15.26 

15.23 

15.19 

15  16 

15.13 

15.10 

15.07 

58 

15.52 

15.49 

15.46 

15.42 

15.39 

15.36 

15.33 

59 

15.78 

15.75 

15.72 

15.69 

15.65 

15.62 

15.59 

60 

16.05 

16.01 

15.98 

15.95 

15.91 

15.88 

15.85 

61 

16.31 

16.28 

16.24 

16.21 

16.18 

16.14 

16.11 

62 

16.57 

16.54 

16.51 

16.47 

16.44 

16.40 

16.37 

63 

16.84 

16.80 

16.77 

16.73 

16.70 

16.66 

16.63 

64 

17.10 

17.07 

17.03 

17.00 

16.96 

16.92 

16.89 

65 

17.37 

17.33 

17.29 

17.26 

17.22 

17.19 

17.15 

66 

17.63 

17.59 

17.56 

17.52 

17.48 

17.45 

17.41 

67 

17.89 

17.86 

17.82 

17.78 

17.74 

17.71 

17.67 

68 

18.16 

18.12 

18.08 

18.04 

18.00 

17.97 

17.93 

69 

18.42 

18  38 

18.35 

18.31 

18.27 

18.23 

18.19 

70 

18.68 

18.65 

18.61 

18.57 

18.53 

18.49 

18.45 

71 

18.95 

18.91 

18.87 

18.83 

18  79 

18.75 

18  71 

72 

19.21 

19.17 

19.13 

19.09 

19.05 

19.01 

18.97 

73 

19.48 

19.44 

19.40 

19.35 

19.31 

19.27 

19.23 

74 

19.74 

19.70 

19.66 

19.62 

19.57 

19.53 

19.49 

75 

20.00 

19.96 

19.92 

19.88 

19.84 

19.80 

19.75 

76 

20.27 

20.22 

20.18 

20.14 

20.10 

20.06 

20.01 

77 

20.49 

20.45 

20.40 

20.36 

20.32 

20.27 

78 

20.75 

20.71 

20.66 

20.62 

20.58 

20.54 

79 

20.97 

20.93 

20.88 

20.84 

20.80 

80 

200  TABLE  VI. 

For  the  Determination  of  Coefficients  of  Purity. — (KoTTMANN.) 


1  Percent. 
Sucrose. 

PBR  CENT.  OF  NON-SUCROSE  =  DEGREE  BRIX  MINUS  PER  CENT. 
SUCROSE. 

Per  Cent. 
Sucrose. 

l.O 

1.1 

1.8 

1  3 

1.4 

15 

1.6 

1.7 

1.8 

8.0 

88.9 

87.9 

87  0 

86.0 

85.1 

84.2 

83.3 

82.5 

81.6 

8.0 

8.2 

89.1 

88.2 

87.2 

86  3 

85.4 

84.5 

83.7 

82.8 

82.0 

8.2 

8.4 

89.4 

88.4 

87.5 

86.6 

85  7 

84.8 

84.0 

83.2 

82.3 

8  4 

8.6 

89.6 

88.7 

87  8 

86.9 

86.0 

85.1 

84.3 

83.5 

82.7 

8.6 

8.8 

89.8 

88.9 

88  0 

87.1 

86.3 

85  4 

84  6 

83.8 

83.0 

8  8 

9.0 

90.0 

89.1 

88  2 

87.4 

86  5 

85.7 

84  9 

84.1 

83.3 

9  0 

9.2 

90.2 

89.3 

88.5 

87.6 

86.8 

86.0 

85.2 

84.4 

83.6 

9.2 

9.4 

90.4 

89.5 

88.7 

87.8 

87  0 

86.2 

85.5 

84.7 

83.9 

9.4 

9.6 

90.6 

89.7 

88  9 

88.1 

87.3 

86  5 

85.7 

85.0 

84.2 

9  6 

9.8 

90.7 

89.9 

89.1 

88.3 

87.5 

86.7 

86.0 

85.2 

84.5 

9.8 

10.0 

90.9 

90.1 

89  3 

88.5 

87.7 

87.0 

86.2 

85.5 

84.7 

10.0 

10  2 

91.1 

90.3 

89.5 

88.7 

87.9 

87.2 

86.4 

85.7 

85.0 

10.2 

10.4 

91.2 

90.4 

89.7 

88.9 

88.1 

87.4 

86.7 

86.0 

85.2 

10.4 

10  6 

91.4 

90.6 

89.8 

89.1 

88.3 

87.6 

86.9 

86.2 

85.5 

10.6 

10.8 

91.5 

90.8 

90.0 

89.3 

88.5 

87.8 

87.1 

86.4 

85.7 

10.8 

11.0 

91.7 

90.9 

90.2 

89.4 

88.7 

88.0 

87.3 

86.6 

85.9 

11.0 

11.2 

91.8 

91.1 

90.3 

89.6 

88.9 

88.2 

87.5 

86.8 

86.2 

11.2 

11.4 

91.9 

91  2 

90.5 

89.8 

89.1 

88.4 

87.7 

87.0 

86.4 

11.4 

11.6 

92.1 

91.3 

90.6 

89.9 

89.2 

88.5 

87  9 

87.2 

86.6 

11.6 

11.8 

92.2 

91.5 

90.8 

90.1 

89.4 

88.7 

88.1 

87.4 

86.8 

11.8 

12.0 

92.3 

91.6 

90  9 

90.2 

89  6 

88.9 

88.2 

87.6 

87.0 

12.0 

12.2 

92.4 

91.7 

91  0 

90.4 

89.7 

89.1 

88.4 

87.8 

87.1 

12.2 

12.4 

92.5 

91.9 

91.2 

90.5 

89.9 

89.2 

88.6 

87.9 

87.3 

12.4 

12.6 

92.6 

92.0 

91.3 

90.6 

90.0 

89.4 

88.7 

88.1 

87.5 

12.6 

12.8 

92.7 

92.1 

91.4 

90.8 

90.1 

89.5 

88  9 

88.3 

87.7 

12.8 

13.0 

92.8 

92.2 

91.5 

90.9 

90.3 

89.7 

89.0 

88.4 

87.8 

13.0 

13.2 

92.9 

92.3 

91.7 

91.0 

90.4 

89.8 

89.2 

88.6 

88.0 

13.2 

13.4 

93.0 

92.4 

91.8 

91.2 

90.5 

89.9 

89.3 

88.7 

88.2 

13.4 

13.6 

93.1 

92.5 

91.9 

91.3 

90.7 

90.1 

89.5 

88.9 

88.3 

13.6 

13.8 

93.2 

92.6 

92.0 

91.4 

90.8 

90.2 

89.6 

89.0 

88.5 

13.8 

14.0 

93.2 

92.7 

92.1 

91.5 

90.9 

90  3 

89.7 

89.2 

88.6 

14.0 

14.2 

93.3 

92.8 

92.2 

91.6 

91.0 

90.4 

89.9 

89.3 

88.8 

14.2 

14.4 

93.4 

92.9 

92.3 

91.7 

91.1 

90  6 

90.0 

89.4 

88.9 

14.4 

14.6 

93.5 

93.0 

92.4 

91.8 

91.3 

90  7 

90.1 

89.6 

89.0 

14.6 

14.8 

93.6 

93.1 

92.5 

91.9 

91.4 

90.8 

90.2 

89.7 

89.2 

14.8 

15.0 

93.7 

93.2 

92.6 

92.0 

91.5 

90.9 

90.4 

89.8 

89.3 

15.0 

15.2 

93.8 

93.3 

92.7 

92.1 

91.6 

91  0 

90.5 

89.9. 

89.4 

15.2 

15.4 

93.9 

93.3 

92.8 

92.2 

91.7 

91.1 

90.6 

90.1 

89.5 

15.4 

15.6 

94  0 

93  4 

92.8 

92.3 

91.8 

91.2 

90.7 

90.2 

89.7 

15.6 

15.8 

94.1 

93.5 

92.9 

92.4 

91  9 

91.3 

90.8 

90.3 

89.8 

15.8 

16.0 

94.1 

93  6 

93.0 

92.5 

92  0 

91.4 

90.9 

90.4 

89.9 

16.0 

16.2 

94.2 

93.7 

93.1 

92.6 

92.0 

91.5 

91.0 

90.5 

90.0 

16.2 

16.4 

94.3 

93.7 

93.2 

92.6 

92.1 

91.6 

91.1 

90.6 

90.1 

16.4 

16.6 

94.3 

93.8 

93.3 

92.7 

92.2 

91  .7 

91.2 

90.7 

90.2 

16.6 

16.8 

94.4 

93.9 

93.3 

92.8 

92.3 

91.8 

91.3 

90.8 

90.3 

16.8 

17.0 

94.4 

93.9 

93.4 

92.9 

92.4 

91  9 

91.4 

90.9 

90.4 

17.0 

TABLE  VI.— CON. 


20 1 


PerCent  i 

Sucrose. 

PER  CENT.  OF  NON-SCCKOSE  =  DEGREE  BRIX  MINUS  PKR  CENT. 
SUCROSE. 

PerCent. 
Sucrose.  | 

1.9 

2  0 

2.1 

2.2 

2.3 

2.4 

2  ft    2.6 

2  7 

8.0 

80.8 

80.0 

79.2 

78.4 

77.7 

76.9 

76.2  75.5 

74.8 

8.0 

8.2 

81  2 

80  4 

79.6 

78.8 

78.1 

77.4 

76.6  75.9 

75.2 

8.2 

8.4 

81  5 

80  8 

80  0 

78.2 

78.5 

77.8 

77.1  i  76.4 

75.7 

8.4 

8.6 

81.9 

81  1 

80.4 

78.6 

78  9 

78.2 

77.5  76.8 

76.1 

8  6 

8  8 

82  2 

81.5 

80.7 

79.0 

79.3 

78.6 

77.9  i  77  2 

76.5 

8.8 

9.0 

82.6 

81.8 

81.1 

79.4 

79.6 

78.9 

78.3  77  6 

76.9 

9.0 

9.2 

82.9 

82.1 

81  4 

79.7 

80.0 

79.3 

78.6  ;  77.9 

77.3 

9.2 

9.4 

83  2 

82.5 

81.7 

80.0 

80  3 

79.9 

79.0  ,  78  3 

77.7 

9.4 

9.6 

83.5 

82.8 

82.1 

80.4 

80  7 

80  0 

79.3  78.7 

78.0 

9.6 

9.8 

83.8 

83.1 

82  4 

80.7 

81.0 

80.3 

79.7  i  79.0 

78  4 

9.8 

10.0 

84  0 

83  3 

82  6 

81  9 

81.3 

80.6 

80  0 

79.4 

78  7 

10.0 

10  2 

84.3 

83.6 

82.9 

82.1 

81.6 

81.0 

80.3 

79.7 

79.1 

10.2 

10.4 

84  6 

83  9 

83.2 

82  5 

81.9 

81.2 

80.6 

80.0 

79  4 

10.4 

10.6 

84  8 

84.1 

83  5 

82  7 

82.2 

81  5 

80.9 

80  3 

79.7 

10.6 

10.8 

85  0 

84.4 

83.7 

83.1 

82  4 

81.8 

81  2 

80  6 

80.0 

10.8 

11.0 

85  3 

84.6 

84.0 

83  4 

82.7 

82.1 

81.5 

80.9 

80.3 

11.0 

11  2 

85  5 

84.8 

84.2 

83  5 

83.0 

82  4 

81.8 

81.2 

80.6 

11.2 

11  4 

85  7 

85.1 

84  4 

82.8 

83  2 

82  6 

82.0 

81.4 

80.9 

11.4 

11  6 

85  9 

85  3 

84  7 

83  1 

83  5 

82  9 

82  3 

81.7 

81  1 

11.6 

11  8 

86  1 

85.5 

84.9 

83  3 

83.7 

83  1 

82.5 

81.9 

81.4 

11.8 

12.0 

86.3 

85  7 

85  1 

83.5 

83.9 

83  3 

82  8 

82  2 

81.6 

12.0 

12  2 

86.5 

85,  9 

85.3 

83.7 

84.1 

83  6 

83.0 

82.4 

81.9 

12.2 

12.4 

86  7 

86  1 

85.5 

83  9 

84.4 

83.8 

83.2 

82.7  J82.1 

12.4 

12.6 

86.9 

86  3 

85.7 

84.1 

84  6 

84  0 

83.4 

82  9  182.4 

12.6 

12.8 

87  1 

86  5 

85.9 

84.3 

84  8 

84  2 

83.7 

83.1 

82.6 

12  8 

13.0 

87.2 

86.7 

86  1 

84.5 

85  0 

84.4 

83.9 

83  3 

82.8 

13.0 

13.2 

87  4 

86.8 

86  3 

84.7 

85.2 

84.6 

84.1 

83.5 

83.0 

13.2 

13.4 

87  6 

87.0 

86  5 

84.9 

85  4 

84.8 

84  3 

83.7 

83.2 

13.4 

13.6 

87  7 

87.2 

86  6 

85  1 

85.5 

85  '0 

84.5 

83.9 

83.4 

13.6 

13.8 

87.9 

87  3 

86.8 

85.3 

85.7 

85.2 

84.7 

84  1 

83.6 

13.8 

14.0 

88  1 

87  5 

87.0 

85.4 

85.9 

85  4 

84.8 

84.3 

83.8 

14.0 

14  2 

88  2 

87.7 

87  1 

85.6 

86.1 

85.5 

85.0 

84  5 

84.0 

14.2 

14  4 

88  3 

87.8 

87.3 

85  7 

86.2 

85  7 

85.2 

84.7 

84.2 

14.4 

14.6 

88.5 

88  0 

87  4 

85.9 

86  4 

85  9 

85.4 

84.9 

84.4 

14.6 

14.8 

88  6 

88  1 

87.6 

86.1 

86  5 

86.0 

85.5 

85.1 

84.6 

14.8 

15  0 

88.8 

88.2 

87.7 

86.2 

86  7 

86.2 

85.7 

85  2 

84  7 

15  0 

15.2 

88.9 

88.4 

87  9 

86.4 

86  9 

86  4 

85  9 

85.4 

84.9 

15.2 

15.4 

89.0 

88  5 

88.0 

86.5 

87.0 

86.5 

86.0 

85  6 

85.1 

15.4 

15  6 

89  1 

88.6 

88.1 

86  6 

87.2 

86.7 

86  2 

85  7 

85.2 

15.6 

15  8 

89  3 

88  8 

88.3 

87.8 

87.3 

86.8 

86.3 

85  9 

85.4 

15.8 

16.0 

89  4 

88  9 

88.4 

87.9 

87.4 

87.0 

86.5 

86.0 

85.6 

16.0 

16  2 

89.5 

89.0 

88.5 

88.0 

87.6 

87  1 

86.6 

86.2 

85.7 

16.2 

16  4 

89.6 

89.1 

88  6 

87.2 

87.7 

87  2 

86  8 

86  3 

85.9 

16.4 

16.6 

89  7 

89.2 

88  8 

87.3 

87  8 

87.4 

86.9 

86  5 

86.0 

16.6 

16.8 

89  8 

89.4 

88.9 

87.4 

88.0 

87.5 

87.0 

86  6 

86.2 

16-.  8 

17  0 

89.9 

89  5 

89  0 

87.5 

88.1 

87.6 

87.2 

86  7 

86.3 

17.0 

202 


TABLE  VI.— CON. 


Per  Cent. 
Sucrose. 

PER  CENT.  OF  NON-SUCROSE  =  DEGREE  BRIX  MINUS  PER  CENT. 
SUCROSE. 

PerCent 
Sucrose. 

3.8 

2.9 

3.0 

31 

3.  a 

33 

34 

3.5 

3  6 

8.0 

74.1 

73.4 

72.7 

72.1 

71.4 

70.8 

70.2 

69.6 

69.0 

8.0 

8.2 

74.5 

73.9 

73.2 

72.6 

71.9 

71.3 

70.7 

70.1 

69.5 

8.2 

8.4 

75.0 

74.3 

73.7 

73.0 

72.4 

71.8 

71.2 

70.6 

70.0 

8.4 

8.6 

75.4 

74.8 

74.1 

73.5 

72.9 

72  3 

71.7 

71.1 

70.5 

8.6 

8.8 

75.9 

75.2 

74  6 

73.9 

73.3 

72.7 

72.1 

71.5 

71.0 

8.8 

9.0 

76.3 

75.6 

75.0 

74.4 

73.8 

73.2 

72  6 

72.0 

71.4 

9.0 

9.2 

76.7 

75.8 

75.4 

74.8 

74.2 

73.6 

73.0 

72.4 

71.9 

9.2 

9.4 

77.0 

76.4 

75.8 

75  2 

74.6 

74.0 

73.4 

72.9 

72.3 

9.4 

9.6 

77.4 

76.8 

76.2 

75.6 

75.0 

74.4 

73.8 

73.3 

72.7 

9.6 

9.8 

77.8 

77.2 

76.6 

76.0 

75.4 

74.8 

74.2 

73.7 

73.1 

9.8 

10.0 

78.1 

77.5 

76.9 

76  3 

75.8 

75.2 

74.6 

74.1 

73.5 

10.0 

10.2 

78.5 

77.9 

77.3 

76  7 

76.1 

75.6 

75  0 

74.5 

73.9 

10.2 

10.4 

78.8 

78.2 

77.6 

77.0 

76.5 

75.9 

75.4 

74.8 

74.3 

10.4 

10.6 

79.1 

78.5 

77.9 

77.4 

76.8 

76.3 

75.7 

75.2 

74.6 

10.6 

10.8 

79.4 

78.8 

78.3 

77.7 

77.1 

76  6 

76.1 

75.5 

75.0 

10.8 

11.0 

79.7 

79.1 

78.6 

78.0 

77.5 

76.9 

76.4 

75.9 

75.3 

11.0 

11.2 

80  0 

79.4 

78.9 

78.3 

77.8 

77.2 

76.7 

76.2 

75.7 

11.2 

11.4 

80.3 

79.7 

79.2 

78.6 

78.1 

77  6 

77.0 

76  5 

76.0 

11.4 

11.6 

80.6 

80.0 

79.4 

78.9 

78.4 

77.9 

77.3 

76  8 

76.3 

11.6 

11.8 

80.8 

80.3 

79.7 

79.2 

78.7 

78.1 

77.6 

77.1 

76.6 

11.8 

12.0 

81.1 

80  5 

80.0 

79  5 

78.9 

78.4 

77.9 

77.4 

76.9 

12.0 

12.2 

81.3 

80.8 

80.3 

79.7 

79.2 

78.7 

78.2 

77.7 

77.2 

12.2 

12.4 

81.6 

81.0 

80.5 

80.0 

79.5 

79.0 

78  5 

78.0 

77.5 

12.4 

12.6 

81.8 

81.3 

80.8 

80.3 

79.7 

79.2 

78  8 

78.3 

77.8 

12.6 

12.8 

82.1 

81.5 

81.0 

80.5 

80.0 

79.5 

79.0 

78.5 

78.0 

12.8 

13.0 

82.3 

81.8 

81.2 

80.7 

80.2 

79.8 

79.3 

78.8 

78.3 

13.0 

13.2 

82  5 

82.0 

81.5 

81  0 

80.5 

80.0 

79.5 

79.0 

78.6 

13.2 

13.4 

82.7 

82.2 

81.7 

81.2 

80.7 

80.2 

79.8 

7°.  3 

78.8 

13.4 

13.6 

82.9 

82  4 

81.9 

81.4 

81.0 

80.5 

80.0 

79.5 

79.1 

13.6 

13.8 

83.1 

82.6 

82.1 

81.7 

81.2 

80.7 

80.2 

79.8 

79.3 

13.8 

14.0 

83.3 

82.8 

82.3 

81.9 

81.4 

80.9 

80.5 

80.0 

79.5 

14.0 

14.2 

83.5 

83.0 

82.5 

82.1 

81.6 

81.1 

80.7 

80.2 

79.8 

14.2 

14.4 

83.7 

83.2 

82.7 

82.3 

81.8 

81.4 

80.9 

80.4 

80.0 

14.4 

14.6 

83.9 

83.4 

82.9 

82.5 

82.0 

81.6 

81.1 

80.7 

80.2 

14.6 

14.8 

84.1 

83.6 

83.1 

82.7 

82.2 

81.8 

81  3 

80.9 

80.4 

14.8 

15.0 

84.3 

83.8 

83.3 

82.9 

82.4 

82.0 

81.5 

81.1 

80.6 

15.0 

15.2 

84.4 

84.0 

83.5 

83.1 

82.6 

82.2 

81.7 

81.3 

80.8 

15.2 

15.4 

84.6 

84.2 

83.7 

83.2 

82.8 

82.* 

81.9 

81.5 

81.0 

15.4 

15.6 

84.8 

84.3 

83.9 

83.4 

83.0 

82.5 

82.1 

81.7 

81.2 

15.6 

15.8 

84.9 

84.5 

84.0 

83.6 

83.2 

82.7 

82.3 

81*9 

81.4 

15.8 

16.0 

85.1 

84.7 

84.2 

83.8 

83.3 

82  9 

82.5 

82.0 

81.6 

16.0 

16.2 

85.3 

84.8 

84.4 

83  9 

83.5 

83.1 

82.7 

82.2 

81.8 

16.2 

16.4 

85.4 

84.9 

84.5 

84.1 

83.7 

83.2 

82.8 

82.4 

82.0 

16.4 

16.6 

85.6 

85  1 

84.7 

84.3 

83.8 

83.4 

83.0 

82.6 

82.2 

16.6 

16.8 

85.9 

85.2 

84.8 

84.4 

84  0 

83.6      83.2 

82.8 

82.4 

16.8 

17.0 

85.9 

85  4 

85.0 

84.6 

84.2 

83.7      83.3 

82.9 

82.5 

17.0 

TABLE  VI.— CON. 


203 


a  n 

3 

PER  CENT.  OF  NON-SUCROSE  =  DEGREE  BRIX  MINUS  PER  CENT. 
»  /            SUCROSE. 

rCent 
icrose. 

££ 

3.7 

3,8 

3.9 

4.0 

41 

42 

4.3    4  4    4.5 

ft  CO 

8  C 

68.4 

67.8 

67.2 

66.7 

66.1 

65.6 

65.0  64  5 

64. 

8.0 

8".  1 

68.9 

68  3 

67.8 

67.2 

66  7 

66  1 

65  6  65.1 

64  6 

8.2 

8.4 

69  4 

68.8 

68  3 

67  7 

67.2 

66.7 

66.1   65.6 

65. 

8.4 

S.i 

69.9 

69.3 

68  8 

68  3 

67.7 

67  2 

66.7  66.2 

65.6 

8  6 

-8  g 

70  4 

69  8 

69  3 

.68.8 

68.2 

67  7 

67.2  66.7 

66.2 

8.8 

9  C 

70  9 

70.3 

69  8 

69  2 

68  7 

68  2 

67.7  !  67.2 

66.7 

9.0 

9.2 

71  3 

70.8 

70  2 

69.7 

69.2 

68  7 

68  1  I  67.6 

67.2 

9.2 

9.4 

71  8 

7J.2 

70.7 

70.1 

69.6 

69.1 

68  6  I  68  1 

67  6 

9.4 

9.6 

72.2 

71  6 

71.1 

70  6 

70.1 

69.6 

69.1  68  6 

68  1 

9.6 

9.8 

72  6 

72  1 

71.5 

71.0 

70.5 

70  0 

69.5 

69.0 

68.5 

9.8 

10.0 

73.0 

72.5 

71.9 

71.4 

70.9 

70.4 

69  9 

69.4 

69.0 

10.0 

10  2 

73.4 

72.9 

72  3 

71T8 

71.3 

70.8 

70  3 

69  9 

69.4 

10.2 

10.4 

73.8 

73.2 

72  7 

72  2 

71.7 

71.2 

70  7 

70.3 

69  8 

10.4 

10.6 

74  1 

73.6 

73.1 

72.6 

72.1 

71.6 

71  1 

70.7 

70.2 

10.6 

10  8 

74.5 

74.0 

73  5 

73  0 

72  5 

72  0 

71  5 

71  1 

70.6 

10.8 

11.0 

74.8 

74  3 

73.8 

73.3 

72.8 

72.4 

71  9 

71.4 

71.0 

11.0 

11  2 

75.2 

74.7 

74.2 

73.7 

73.2 

72.7 

72  3 

71.8 

71.3 

11.2 

11  4 

75.5 

75.0 

74.5 

74.0 

73.5 

73.1 

72.6 

72.2 

71.7 

11.4 

11  6 

75  8 

75.3 

74.8 

74  4 

73  9 

73.4 

73.0 

72.5 

72.0 

11.6 

11  8 

76  1 

75  6 

75.2 

74  9 

74  2 

73.8 

73.3 

72  8 

72  4 

11.8 

12.0 

76  4 

75.9 

75  5 

75  0 

74.5 

74  1 

73.6 

73.2 

72.7 

12.0 

12  .2 

76.7 

76  2 

75.8 

75.3 

74  8 

74.4 

73.9 

73.5 

73  1 

12.2 

12.4 

77.0 

76.5 

76.1 

75.6 

75  2 

74  7 

74.3 

73  8 

73.4 

12.4 

12.6 

77.3 

76  8 

76.4 

75  9 

75.4 

75  0 

74.6 

74.1 

73.7 

12.6 

12.8 

77.6 

77.1 

76.6 

76.2 

75.7 

75  3 

74.9 

74.4 

74.0 

12  8 

13.0 

77.8 

77.4 

76  9 

76.5 

76.0 

75  6 

75.1 

74  7 

74.3 

3.0 

13.2 

78.1 

77.6 

77.2 

76.7 

76  3 

75.9 

75.4 

75  0 

74  6 

3.2 

13  4 

78  4 

77.9 

77.5 

77  0 

76.6 

76  1 

75  7 

75  3 

74  9 

3.4 

13.6 

78.6 

78.2 

77  7 

77.3 

76.8 

76.4 

75  0 

75.6 

75  1 

3.6 

13  8 

78.9 

78.4 

78  0 

77  5 

77  1 

76  7 

76.2 

75.8 

75.4 

3.8 

14.0 

79  1 

78.7 

78.2 

77.8 

77.3 

76.9 

76.5 

76.1 

75  7 

4.0 

14  2 

79.3 

78.9 

78.5 

78  0 

77.6 

77.2 

76  8 

76.3 

75.9 

4.2 

14  4 

79  6 

79.1 

78.7 

78  3 

77.8 

77.4 

77.0 

76  6 

76.2 

4.4 

14  6 

79.8 

79.3 

78  9 

78.5 

78  1 

77.6 

77.2 

76  8 

76.4 

4.6 

14:8 

80.0 

79.6 

79.1 

78  7 

78.3 

77.9 

77.5 

77  1 

76  7 

4.8 

15  0 

80.2 

79  8 

79.4 

78.9 

78.5 

78.1 

77.7 

77  3 

76.9 

5  0 

15  2 

80'.  4 

80.0 

79.6 

79.2 

78  8 

78.4 

77.9 

77  6 

77.2 

5.2 

15.4 

80.6 

80.2 

79  8 

79  4 

79.0 

78.6 

78.2 

77.8 

77  4 

5.4 

15  6 

80  8 

80  4 

80.0 

79.6 

79.2 

78  8 

78.4 

78  0 

77.6 

5.6 

15  8 

81.0 

80.6 

80  2 

79.8 

79.4 

79.0 

78.6 

78.2 

77  S 

5.8 

16.0 

81.2 

80.8 

80.4 

80  0 

79.6 

79.2 

78.8 

78.4 

78  0 

6.0 

16  2 

81.4 

81.0 

80  6 

80.2 

79  8 

79.4 

79.0 

78.6 

78.3 

6.2 

16  4 

81.6 

81.2 

80.8 

80.4 

80  0 

79.6 

79  2 

78.8 

78.5 

6.4 

16.6 

81  8 

81  4 

81.0 

80.6 

80.2 

79.8 

79.4 

79.0 

78.7 

6.6 

16.8 

82.0 

81.6 

81  2 

80  8 

80.4 

80.0 

79.6 

79  2 

78.9 

6.8 

17  o  82  1, 

81  7 

81.3 

80.0 

80  6 

80.2 

79  8 

79  4 

78.1 

7.0 

204 


TABLE  VII. 

For  Determining  Per  Cent.  CaO  in  Lime  with  a  Normal  Acid. 


C.  C.  Acid. 

Percent. 
CaO. 

C.C  Acid. 

Percent. 
CaO. 

r  r   A^-H       Percent. 
1  c.  c.  Acid,  i       Ca0 

22.0 

61  6 

24.7 

69.2 

27.4 

76.7 

22.1 

61.9 

27.8 

69.4 

27.5 

77.0 

22.2 

62.2 

24.9 

69.7 

27.6 

77.3 

22.3 

62.4 

25.0 

70.0 

27.7 

77.6 

22.4 

62.7 

25.1 

70.3 

27.8 

77.8 

22  .,5 

63.0 

25.2 

70.6 

27.9 

78.1 

22.6 

63.3 

25  3 

70.8 

28.0 

78.4 

21.1 

63.6 

25.4 

71  1 

28.1 

78.7 

21.  8 

63.8 

25.5 

71.4 

28.2 

79.0 

22.9 

64.1 

25.6 

71.7 

28.3 

79.2 

23.0 

64.4 

25.7 

72.0 

28.4 

79.5 

23.1 

64.7 

25.8 

72.2 

28.5 

79.8 

23.2 

65.0 

25.9 

72  5 

28.6 

80.1 

23.3 

65.2 

26.0 

72.8 

28.7 

80  4 

23.4 

65.5 

26.1 

73.1 

28  8 

80.6 

23.5 

65.8 

26.2 

73  4 

28  9 

80.9 

23.6 

66.1 

26.3 

73.6 

29.0 

81.2 

23.7 

66.4 

26  4 

73.9 

29.1 

81.5 

23.8 

66  6 

26.5 

74.2 

29.2 

81.8 

23  9 

66.9 

26.6 

74.5 

29.3 

82.0 

24.0 

67.2 

26  7 

74.8 

29  4 

82.3 

24.1 

67.5 

26.8 

75.0 

29.5 

82.6 

24.2 

67.8 

26.9 

75.3 

29.6 

82.9 

24.3 

68.0 

27  0 

75  6 

29  7 

83.2 

24.4 

68.3 

27.1 

75.9 

29.8 

83.4 

24.5 

68.6 

27.2 

76.2 

29.9 

83.7 

24.6 

68.9 

27.3 

76.4 

30.0 

84.0 

205 


TABLE  VIII. 

CaO  WITH  A  NORMAL  ACID. 


c  c. 

Per  Cent. 

C.  C. 

PerCent. 

C.  C 

PerCent. 

of  Acid. 

of  CaO. 

of  Acid. 

of  CaO. 

of  Acid. 

of  CaO. 

1 

2.8 

13 

36.4 

25 

70.0 

2 

5.6 

14 

39.2 

26 

72.8 

3 

8.4 

15 

42.0 

27 

75.6 

4 

12.2 

16 

44.8 

28 

78.4 

5 

14.0 

17 

47.6 

29 

81.2 

6 

16.8 

18 

50.4 

30 

84.0 

7 

19.6 

19 

53.2 

31 

86.8 

8 

22.4 

20 

56.0 

32 

89.6 

9 

25.2 

21 

58.8 

33 

92.4 

10 

28.0 

22 

61.6 

34 

95.2 

11 

30.8 

23 

64.4 

35 

98.0 

12 

33.6 

24 

67.2 

35.7 

100.0 

ADD  FOR  TENTHS  OF  A  CUBIC  CENTIMETER. 

C.  C.  of  Acid.        Per  Cent,  of  CaO. 


.28 

.56 

.84 

1.22 

1.40 

1.68 

1.96 

2.24 

2.52 


2o6  TABLE  IX. 

COMPARISON   OF   THERMOMETRIC  SCALES. 

CKNTIGRADE  AND  FAHRENHEIT. 


Centigrade 

Fahrenheit 

Centigrade 

Fahrenheit.  ||  Centigrade 

Fahrenheit. 

100 

212 

5°3 

o 

127.4 

°6 

42°.8 

99 

210.2 

52 

125.6 

5 

41 

98 

208.4 

51 

123.8 

4 

39.2 

97 

206.6 

50 

122 

3 

37.4 

96 

204.8 

49 

120.2 

2 

35  6 

95 

203 

48 

118.4 

1 

33  8 

94 

201.2 

47 

116.6 

0 

32 

93 

199.4 

46 

114.8 

—  1 

30.2 

92 

197.6 

45 

113 

-  2 

28.4 

91 

195.8 

44 

111.2 

—  3 

26.6 

90 

194 

43 

109.4 

—  4 

24.8 

89 

192.2 

42 

107.6 

-  5 

23 

88 

190.4 

41 

105  8 

—  6 

21.2 

87 

188.6 

40 

104 

—  7 

19.4 

86 

186.8 

39 

102  2 

—  8 

17.6 

85 

185 

38 

100.4 

-  9 

15.8 

84 

183.2 

37 

98.6 

—10 

14 

83 

181.4 

36 

96.8 

-11 

12.2 

82 

179.6 

35 

95 

-12 

10.4 

81 

177.8 

34 

93.2 

—13 

8.6 

80 

176 

33 

91.4 

—14 

6.8 

79 

174.2 

32 

89.6 

—15 

5 

78 

172.4 

31 

87.8 

—16 

3.2 

77 

170.6 

30 

86 

—17 

1.4 

76       - 

168.8 

29 

84.2 

—18 

0.4 

75 

167 

28 

82.4 

—19 

—  2.2 

74 

165.2 

27 

80.6 

—20 

—  4 

73 

163.4 

26 

78.8 

—21 

—  5.8 

72 

161.6 

25 

77 

—22 

—  7.6 

71 

159.8 

24 

75.2 

—23 

—  9.4 

70 

158 

23 

73.4 

—24 

—11  2 

69 

156.2 

22 

71  6 

—25 

—13 

68 

154  4 

21 

69.8 

—26 

—14  8 

67 

152  6 

20 

68 

—27 

—16.6 

66 

150.8 

19 

66.2 

—28 

—18.4 

65 

149 

18 

64.4 

—29 

—20  2 

64 

147.2 

17 

62.6 

—30 

—22 

63 

145.4 

16 

60  8 

—31 

-23.8 

62 

143.6 

15 

59 

-32 

—25.6 

61 

141.8 

14 

57.2 

—33 

—27.4 

60 

140 

13 

55.4 

—  34 

—29.2 

59 

138  2 

12 

53  6 

—35 

—31 

58 

136.4 

11 

51  8 

—36 

—32.8 

57 

134.6 

10 

50 

—37 

—34.6 

56 

132  8 

9 

48.2 

—  38 

—36.4 

55 

131 

8 

46.4 

—39 

—  38  2 

54 

129.2 

7 

44.6 

—40 

—40 

TABLE  IX.— CON. 

COMPARISON  OF  THERMOMETRIC  SCALES. 

FAHRENHEIT  AND  CKNTIGRADE. 


207 


Fahren- 
heit. 

Centi- 
grade 

Fahren 
heit. 

Centi- 
grade. 

Fahren- 
heit. 

Centi- 
grade . 

Fahren- 
heit. 

Centi- 
grade. 

o 

o 

o 

o 

o 

o 

o 

o 

212 

100 

165 

73.89 

118 

47.78 

71 

21.67 

211 

99  44 

164 

73.33 

117 

47.22 

70 

21.11 

210 

98.99 

163 

72.78 

116 

46.67 

69 

20.55 

209 

98.33 

162 

72.22 

115 

46  11 

68 

20 

208 

97.78 

161 

71.67 

114 

45.55 

67 

19.44 

207 

97.22 

160 

71.11 

113 

45 

66 

18.89 

206 

96.67 

159 

70.55 

112 

44.44 

65 

18  33 

205 

96.11 

158 

70 

111 

43.89 

64 

17.78 

204 

95.55 

157 

69.44 

110 

43.33 

63 

17.22 

203 

95 

156 

68.89 

109 

42.78 

62 

16  67 

202 

94.44 

155 

68.33 

108 

42.22 

61 

16.11 

201 

93.89 

154 

67.78 

107 

41.67 

60 

15.55 

200 

93.33 

153 

67.22 

106 

41.11 

59 

15 

199 

92.78 

152 

66.67 

105 

40.55 

58 

14.44 

198 

92.22 

151 

66.11 

104 

40 

57 

13.89 

197 

91.67 

150 

65.55 

103 

39.44 

56 

13.33 

196 

91.11 

149 

65 

102 

38.89 

55 

12.78 

195 

90.55 

148 

64.44 

101 

38.33 

54 

12.22 

194 

90 

147 

63.89 

100 

37.78 

53 

11  67 

193 

89.44 

146 

63.33 

99 

37.22 

52 

11.11 

192 

88.89 

145 

62.78 

98 

36.67 

51 

10.55 

191 

88.33 

144 

62.22 

97 

36.11 

50 

10 

190 

87.78 

143 

61.67 

96 

35.55 

49 

9.44 

189 

87.22 

142 

61.11 

95 

35 

48 

8.89 

188 

86.67 

141 

60.55 

94 

34.44 

47 

8.33 

187 

86.11 

140 

60 

93 

33.89 

46 

7.78 

-  186 

85  55 

139 

59.44 

92 

33.33 

45 

7.22 

185 

85 

138 

58.89 

91 

32.78 

44 

6.67 

184 

84.44 

137 

58.33 

90  ' 

32.22 

43 

6.11 

183 

83  89 

136 

57.78 

89 

31.67 

42 

5  55 

182 

83  33 

135 

57  .  22 

88 

31.11 

41 

5 

181 

82.78 

134 

56.67 

87 

30.55 

40 

4.44 

180 

82  22 

133 

56.11 

86 

30 

39 

3.89 

179 

81  67 

132 

55.55 

85 

29.44 

38 

3.33 

178 

81.11 

131 

55 

84 

28.89 

37 

2.78 

177 

80  55 

130 

54.44 

83 

28.33 

36 

2.22 

176 

80 

129 

53.89 

82 

27.78 

35 

1.67 

175 

79.44 

128 

53.33 

81 

27.22 

34 

1.11 

174 

78.89 

127 

52.78 

80 

26.67 

173 

78.33 

126 

52.22 

79 

26.11 

172 

77.78 

125 

51.67 

78 

25.55 

171 

77.22 

124 

51.11 

77 

25 

170 

76.67 

123 

50.55 

76 

24.44 

169 

76.11 

122 

50 

75 

23.89 

168 

75.55 

121 

49.44 

74 

23.33 

167 

75 

120 

48  89 

73 

22.78 

166 

74.44 

119 

48.33 

72 

22.22 

208 


TABLE  X. 

PARTIAL  LIST  OF  ATOMIC  WEIGHTS.— (REMSEN.) 


NAME. 

Symbol. 

Atomic 
Weight. 

NAME. 

Symbol. 

Atomic 
Weight. 

Aluminum  ..  . 

Al. 

27.04 

Lead  

Pb. 

206.4 

Antimony  .  .  . 

Sb. 

119.6 

Lithium  .    .  . 

Li. 

7.01 

Arsenic 

As. 

74.9 

Magnesium  .  . 

Mg. 

23.94 

Barium  

Ba. 

136.9 

Manganese  .  . 

Mn. 

"54.8 

Bismuth 

Bi. 

207.3 

Mercury 

Her 

199.8 

Boron  

B. 

10*9 

Molybdenum 

•*o 

Mo. 

95.9 

Bromine  .  ,  . 

Br. 

79.76 

Nickel  

Ni. 

58.56 

Cadmium  .... 

Cd. 

111.7 

Nitrogen   .... 

N. 

14.01 

Calcium  

Ca. 

39.9! 

Carbon  

C. 

11.97 

Oxygen  

O 

15.96 

Chlorine.  .  .  . 
Chromium  .  .  . 
Cobalt  
Copper  

Cl. 
Cr. 
Co. 
Cu. 

35.37 
52.45 
58.74 
63.18 

Phosphorus  .  . 
Platinum  .... 
Potassium  .  . 

P. 
Pt. 
K. 

30.96 
194.3 

39.03 

Fluorine  

F. 

19.06 

Silicon  
Silver  

Si. 
Ag- 

'28.1 
107.66 

Gold  

Au. 

196.7 

Sodium   .... 

Na. 

23.0 

Strontium  .  .  . 

Sr. 

87.3 

Hydrogen  .  .  . 

H. 

1. 

Sulphur  

S. 

31.98 

Iodine  

I. 

126.54 

Tin  

Sn. 

117.4 

Iridium   ..... 

Ir. 

192.5 

Iron  . 

Fe. 

55.88 

Uranium  .... 

U. 

239.8 

Zinc   

Zn. 

65.1 

209 


TABLE  XI. 

FACTORS  USED  IN  QUANTITATIVE  ANALYSIS. 


FOUND. 

SOUGHT. 

iMulti- 
plyBy 

Nitrogen  N 

.8236 
.3089 
.5832 
.3431 
.1374 
1.7856 
2.4294 
.5600 
.4400 
.  4116 
.2356 
2  .  2730 
1  .  9091 
2.4117 
2.4689 
2.1035 
1  .  6503 
.7983 

.4762 
2.1000 
3.0015' 

.7565 
,3602 
.6396 

.  :,^2 
.6668 

2.1827 

2  .  9903 
1.9062 
1  .  4668 
.7913 
1  .  5024 
2.2645 
.2473 

Barium  Sulphate  ....  BaSO4.  .  . 
Barium  Sulphate  .  .  .  .BaSO4.  .  . 
Barium  Sulphate  BaSO4.  .  . 
Barium  Sulphate  ....  BaSO4  •  • 
Calcium  Oxide  .      ...  CaO  

Calcium  Sulphide  CaS  .  .  . 
Calcium  Sulphate  CaSO4  . 
Sulphuric  Anhydride.  .SO3  .  . 
Sulphur              S  

Calcium  Carbonate  .  .  .CaCO3.. 
Calcium  Sulphate  ..  .  CaSO4  . 
Calcium  Oxide  .  ..CaO... 

Calcium  Oxide     CaO  
Calcium  Carbonate.  .CaCO3  .. 
Calcium  Carbonate.  .CaCO3  .. 
Calcium  Sulphate  CaSO4  .  .  . 
CalciuofSulphate  CaSO4.  .  . 
Carbon  Dioxide   ....   CO2  .    .  . 
Carbon  Dioxide  CO2  

Carbon  Dioxide  CO2  . 
Calcium  Oxide  CaO  .  . 
Sulphur         S    
Calcium  Carbonate  CaCO3. 
Magnesium  Carbonate.  MgCO3 
Sodium  Carbonate  Na2CO3 
Potassium  Carbonate.  .  K2CO3. 
Potassium  Chloride  .  .  .KC1..  .  . 
Sodium  Chloride  NaCl  .  . 
Copper                               Cu 

Carbon  Dioxide  COa  .... 

Carbon  Dioxide  CO2   .... 
Chlorine          Cl  

Chlorine                ..    ..Cl     

Copper  Oxide      CuO     .. 

Magnesium     Carbon- 
ate                  .        .     MgCOj.  . 

Magnesium  Oxide  ....MgO  .. 
Magnesium  Carbonate.  MgCO3 
Magnesium  Sulphate.  .MgSO4 

2  Magnesium  Carbonate 
.  2MgCO7 

Magnesium  Oxide  .  .  .MgO    .  .  . 
Magnesium  Oxide.  .  .MgO  .  .  . 

Magnesium      P  y  r  o  - 
phosphate   Mg2P2O7 
Magnesium      P  y  r  o  - 
phosphate  Mg2P2Oy 
Magnesium      P  y  r  o  - 
phosphate.             .  .  Mg2P2Oy 

2  Magnesium  Oxide  .  .  .2MgO  . 
Phosphoric  Anhydride  . 

Magnesium  Sulphate.  MgSO4  .. 
Magnesium  Sulphate  MgSO4... 
Phosphoric     A  n  h  y  - 
dride  PaO5  

Magnesium  Oxide  MgO  .  . 
Sulphuric  Anhydride.  .SO2.  .  .  . 

Calcium  Phosphate  CaP2Og 

2  Potassium  Phosphate  2K3PO4 
Potassium  Chloride  .  .  .KC1  .  .  . 
Potassium  Carbonate.  .K2CO3. 
Potassium  Chloride  .  .  .KC1  .  .  . 
2  Potassium  Phosphate  2K3PO4 
Potassium  Sulphate  .  .  .K2SO4.. 
Chlorine  Cl  

Phosphoric     A  n  h  y  - 
dride   PaO5  

Potassium   K    
Potassium  Oxide  ....  K2O  
Potassium  Oxide  K2O  
3  Potassium   Oxide..  3K2O  ... 
Potassium  Oxide  K2O  ... 
Silver  Chloride   AgCl  .  . 

2IO 


TABLE  XI.— CON. 


FOUND. 


SOUGHT. 


Multi- 
ply By 


Sodium Na    .... 

Sodium Na    

Sodium Na2 

.Sodium  Carbonate.    .Na2CO3 
Sodium  Carbonate 
Sodium  Chloride  . 
Sodium  Chloride  . 
Sodium  Chloride  . 
Sodium  Oxide   . . . 
Sodium  Oxide     . . 
Sodium  Sulphate  . 
Sodium  Sulphate . 
Sodium  Sulphate  . 

Sulphuric  Anhydride. SO3 

Sulphuric  Anhydride. SO3 

Sulphuric  Anhydride. SO3 

Sulphuric  Anhydride  SO3 


.Na2CO3 
.NaCl..  . 
.NaCl... 
.NaCl... 
.Na20  .. 
.Na2O  .. 
.Na2SO4. 
.Na2SO4. 
Na2SO4. 


Sodium  Chloride  . .  .  .NaCl. . . 
Sodium  Carbonate.  Na2CO3 

Sodium  Sulphate Na2SO4 

Carbon  Dioxide CO2   . .  . 

Oxygen O    

hlorine Cl 

Sodium Na    .... 

Sodium  Oxide Na2O 

Sodium  Carbonate. .  .Na2CO3 

Sodium  Sulphate Na2SO4 

Sodium Na    .... 

Sulphuric  Anhydride. SO3    . . . 

Dxygen O  . 

Calcium  Sulphate  ...CaSO4  . 
Magnesium  Sulphate  MgSO4  . 
Potassium  Sulphate. . K2SO4  . 
Sodium  Sulphate  . . .  .Na2SO4 


2.5378 

2.3010 

3.0830 

.4146 

.1508 

.6060 

.3940 

.2906 

1.7067 

2  2889 

.3244 

.5631 

.1125 

1.6996 

.4996 

2.1773 

1.7759 


211 


2 
H*Mi-'H*ooop©pp     !» 


^-4^-t\J>-'^DOOO>4^C^*-*O       O 


^OXMO^Cn^.C^ts)!-'  « 

O>  OJ  U»  ls>  W  N>  Is)  tO  K)  Is)  • 

^C>JI—  '^GOO^.  CnC/JMO  O 

*vi»-*CnvOC>J<<It-*C/iOC>J  £3 

K)  W  N)  10  W  ^)  ts>  W  10  tsJ  » 


O^  O  -^  00  Is)  ^  O  -P-'  OC-  t\)  ^      t3 


OvOOOMO^Cn-^-C/JlsJM 

O^a^^ON^CnCnaiCnCn 

00  to  O^  O  4^-  00  Is)  O  O  4^ 


Cn  ^  C>J  ^  M 


. 

M      O 


OOX       ' 


- 

ts)aNO-^Gois)ON 


S-  2 


nil 

B  |  8| 
2.  3  o  ft 

5«li 
•&j" 

H;.! 

P 


la 


O       5'  S  r-  o 

a    S-  2  "  -o 

03       -     o    a    o 


g       £*R 

5  p  ^  > 
S     I  2  3  £ 

sl 


s   ' 

o    S 


S  S  |SS 

O  r*     g1    J    O 

a  r » 

co  g  o-  5-  E 


00 

m 

X 


II;  I 

*""" «  P*  M 


B  2- | 

r*-  CU 

?;> 


B  S  B 


212 


TABLE  XII.— CON. 


*"|     "<frT}-Tj-Tl-Tj-Tl-COcOCOCOCO 


cOcOcorOcO 

rt  Cl  *0  ^  uj  vo  l>  00 


H  M' 


rH  M  CO  TJ-  10  MD1>  X  ON  C 


O   ON  X  vO  U2 

S^'sa  " 


X'l^  iO  •* 
ON  ON  ON  ON 


iH  O 


i^.  ro  a\ 

iO  ON  C<J 


C-^  1^*  rO  ON 
O  CO  !>•  ^H  ^~  00  TH 
.  "^  O  LO  rH  'sO  rH  l>. 


r-t  LO  O  T*-  ON 


rH  O  ON 

^'^s'a'a's's's's's 


ON  00 

§<-O  r-l  t^  CO  ON  i-O  rH  t^  CO  ON 
CO  l^  O  •*  l^  r-t  IO  CO  fN  IO 
lOO'vDr-t'OrNli-^fVJQOcO 


TABLE  XII.— CON. 


213 


vO-^^ 
CM  CM  0s  . 


^ 
OC 


tO  tO  tO  M  h*  M 

CM  10  0  M  4-  h-  00  CM  OJ  ,~ 

^7  o  M  IO  4>-CN  M  ^O  K*  IO  C> 

vO  O  NJ  \£>  CM  W  GO  CM  »-*  00  3 


l\J  tsi  M  tO  M  M  M 

00  C^  OJ  O  "'I  4>  >—  'v^ 
^7  C  ta,4^  CM  M  \O  O 


^ 
CM   W 

O'v    2 


H-  'O^MGNH  'C^»—  »O^I—  *ff\ 

CM  CM  ^  O^  ^1  ^1  00  00  'O  '^C 

4±  \O  4*.  \O 

O 


'O  ^  Cu  O  *^1  CM  l\>  'O  ON  C*J     '     ^ 

i—  *  C»J  CM  G\  00  O  >-»  CK>  CM  ^i  00    &^ 

-C  C^  C>J  O  ^  tJf  ^O  CM  ts>  00  CM 


M  O  CM  O  CM  O  CM  O  CM 


4-*  CN  00  vO  M  OJ 

X  4*  M  »  I  4-  O  ^T  OJ 

£&£8SQ$~8 


M    O 


0s'  4^  M  OC  CM  Is)  \D  ^-1  4*-  M 
^1  O  O  K>  4^  tn  ^7  \O  O  KJ  -^ 
0s.  CM  O  O^  tOAO  CM  K>  00  CM  t-» 


10  M  K>  -1  Is)  M  IN>  ^7  10  ^7 

O  O  M  M  IsJ  N)  Co  OJ  4>-  4^ 


^-7  4^  i—  '  00  C/i  CM  O  "^1  4^-  »—  ' 
Is)  OJ  CM  M  GO  O  ts>  GJ  CM  ^7 
l-»  00  4^  H*  ^7  4*  O  M  OJ  O 


CM  O  CM  O  C/ 

CMCMON^^. 


i  O  CM  O  CM 


OJtOt\>tO*-'>-*h-'h-» 

OJ  O  O1'  K)  ^O  CM  tO  00, CM  M  00 

OJ>-O4'VO4^\O4>-'vO4>-^O4i- 
^OOO»-'t-'tOtOOJOJ4^4^ 


O  ^7  4^-  K>  v£  ON  OJ  O  M  CM  IO 


CM  IO  o 
h-'N>  2, 


CMts)^OO\C>Jl—  ' 


— 
OJ4^ 


cK» 


vO4»-O 
4^  ^7  »-» 


tO  tO  (-1  *-»>-»  l-» 

tOOOO^OJ>-'VO<7CMtO          ^j 

O  O  ^O  ^  00  00  ^*7  ^^7  *^7  O^  O^   o" 

MtOOOOJ\O4»-'vOCMO<^t-'    tn 
X  tO  O"  O  OJ 


00 
Cn 


-  - 

C*JOOOO^4^tOvO<IOiCU»-'  {*, 

1—  'vOMCMCtJMvO"s-7CMC»Jh-»  52 

4i-4i.C>JC>JO^'tOtOt-'t-»OO  2 

ocMoa^t-'ONto  • 

M  t-»  Cn  \O  OJ 


- 
I-»O^tO 

O^  O 


O  4^  00  IO 


SO  O  vO  ^  00  00  M  M  5i  ^ 
CMO^H'OMO^ttOOOCo 
Cn  \O  CK)  •<! 


to      M  b  o  '^o  \o  bo  bo  S 

h-'ON»-'MtOOOC>J004>-    • 
O  OJ  ^7  tO 


214 


TABLE  XII.— CON. 


!>•  rH  ^  c 


©  ©  r-t  r-t  rH 


1C  00  rH  ^t 
•^f  O^i  1C  © 

©  CO  1>  rH 


O  O  O  rH  r-  ?M  (Nl  <M  ro  ro 


CO 

I 
§ 

CO 

I-H 

O 

& 

§ 

« 

I 


-*•  cc  c^j  \o  o  •* 

^    rH  O  rH  ^O  CN!  I^>* 
O   01  Co  ON  S  S  O 


i>r^oocooo-^-^Ti-ONu^o 
iHU)3o<su5o\<>»'5cR^>tx 

O  ©'  ©'  rH  rH  rH  fS|  fNI  f>i  CO 


O  O  O  rH  rH  rH  OJ  C<J  Cs    C<)  rO 


©©OrHrHrHC<lfX|r^cOCO 
^XS^^QPrHTl-r 


O  O  O  r-t  r-t  r-t  C<l  CS|  fsj  r<0  rO 


o  o 


l>  v£>  T  CO  r-t 


CNv£©Tj-t^,-iioONnO 


00  VO  Tf  rH  ON  t>  VO  f*)  rH 


l-f    rH> 


^   co'rH' 


o  i^  vo  to  IH  a\  t>.  •«*•  cs  o  oo 


TABLE  XII.— CON. 


215 


Co  IO  tO  IO  M  h-»  t-k 
O  M  4*  M  00  Cn  10 

§4^  Co  Co  tO 
Co  00  Co  00 
IO  4>-  ON  00 

H»  O  O  O  O 


CO  tO  IO  IO  I-1  ^  M> 

O  M  4^  M  00  Cn  tO  vO  0s-  Co  p 
M  "*-7  ON  ON  Cn  Cn  4*-  4*.  4*.  Co  Co 

vflaoaoaD^aoacaoaoaoao 


CO  IO  tO  tO  M  H*  H* 

»-»  pc  4^  i-1  00  Cn  to  v 

OOvOvOOCXOO- 

•^^°^^S2j 


g 

-7  M  ON  ON    ? 
n  O  Cr.  O   ft 


OJ  C*J  tO  tO  to  *-*  t-»  O  O  vO  vC    S 
vO  4^  vO  C/i  O  C/»  O  Cn  H4  ON  h^    ^ 

Oi4^4-4-'4-4^4-4-4^4*-^ 

to  ^  o 

O-»tOK)tOt-'>-'»-r>-» 

r?\  ^s  f^s   'n   Tn    i^     f^    fij  f.j   Ki  IO     S 


.  M  vO  t-»  Co  Cn  -<7  vO   r 

to  to  to  to  to  to  to 


CnOO".  >-»Cs->-' 


Cs- 

4^  0s  00  O  to  4-  0s  00 

i-'OOOOOOO 


O  tO 

OO 


OJ  KJ  IO  I— '  *-»  O  O  vC  vO  OC  00 

COtOtOtOtOH'H-'M 

tOvOONCoOM^l-^ 


f$jg]$)3BM£P 

"^  fe  M  O 


vO  00 


tO  tO  tO  >->  h-»  »-*  M 

ONCot-'XCnCoOMCntOO 

Q 

10      °°  o  o  o 


CO  M  »-»  4*.  00  M 


r. 


>-»vOONCOK-»OOCnCoO 


7  O  4*  00  »-»  Cn   £* 
J  vO  Cn  M  M  tO    » 


/iCot-^OOOONCnCoh^ 
oONvOtOCnOOi-«4^M 


to  to  to  >-• »-»  H»  i-» 

M4»->-»vOON4»->-'OOpNCop 

IO  Oi  vO  tO  ON  O  CO  M  O  4*  M  9 

OONtO004»-OCn>-»^-7CovO  *. 

Cn  00  h^  4^  ^7  O  C»J  ON  vO  tO  Cn 


^  K  ^ 

^8S 


_ 
tO  00 

COK^ 


tO  tO  tO  (-»  H»  t-4  M 


4^00»-'CnOOtOONvOCo   ^ 
Cnt-»MtO004i.OONtO   ". 


vO^> 


SOJ'<7O4^M»-'CnOOtO 
ONI— »-~-7O-»vOCn>-*ONtO 
h^  O  00  ON  Cn  Co  h^  O  00  ON 
vOCoO^vOtOCnOOh^-li-M 


00  Cn  to  O  M  Cn  tO  vO  M  4»-  h-» 

tO  ON  vO  Co  ON  O  4^  *^7  h^  4^-  00 

O4^MOCoONvOtOCnQOl— ' 


tOK)KJ^>»-*MH*M 

Cn  00  to  ON  vO  Co  ON  O  Co  **7  ^ 

O  00  ON  Cn  Co  ^  O  00  ON  Cn  Co 
tOONvOtOCnOOH'4^^7OCo 


00  0s*  Co  O  GO  Cn  to  O  ^1  Cn  tO 

/i  vO  Co  ON  O  CO 

»  4^  O  ON  h-»  -  ~ 


H*  Cn 

Cn  h-t 
Is)  t-» 
00  »-» 


vO  to  Cn 

Co  Co  Co 


216 


TABLE  XII.— CON. 


O 
rt1 


g  *°. 


ON  00  vO  ^  c«o  rH  ON 


O  ON  !>•  *O  CO  CM 

O^  ON  O  TH  c^  rO 


vOi/5 
rH  ON 


l>.ONC^iOOOi—  1 


v£>  ON 
•   *"^  ON 


rnr^fj^vo'Oi^oooNO 


rOONTfONi 
I>  ON  CS  ^J-  t 


rf)  1>  rH  10  ON  rO  l> 


Mc<jra 

rH  »O  ON 


•  xxxxxxxxxxx 

i    !>.  rH  IO  ON  CO  i>-  rH  IO  ON  CO  l^- 
U  rH  rH  rH  rH  CM  CM  CM 


X 


rH  rH  rH  »H  M  C^  C4 


*-.  rH  LO  ON  CO  1>-  rH 

r~< 

•**  rH  fO  \O  00 

u 


- 

OrOvDXrHrO^ 
rH  rH  rH  rH  fS)  ri  <N 


.  o 

^    000000000000X00000000 


g    IO  ON  CO  1^  rH  IO  ON  CO  1^  rH  IO 

<  i          CM  ^O  1^-  O  Ol  iO  X  O  CO  *  O 
W  THrHrHrHCMfMfM 


g8?SaS85S8S8 

O  T-HrHrHrHOlCMCM 


rH  <M  f  O  •*  'O 


TABLE  XII.— CON. 


217 


4*C>   O 
•* 


SOD^4*tOOOCON4i-lO 
oooooocoo 


NOto 

Co  NO 


a>-  U  bt  Q  bt  o  en  o  *  v£  *.  r° 

61  Co  M  NO  M  Cn  Co  i—  *  '•-O  ~^I  Cn 
tOtOtOtOtOtOtOtOtOtOtO 


Cn 
OJ 
CM 


^'  C>J  Is)  Is)  h-^ 


O  (^  (-*  ^1  ^  00  OJ  \O 


C/J    M 


Cn  0->  I—  '  ^C  -^1  Cn  C*J  »—  '  vjO  ^t  Cn  • 


ooooxxoooooooooo 


tO 

oo 


M»-*4*.00>-*Cri^ls)ffNlvOC>J  ^ 

M  tv)  X  OJ  'vO  4^  O  Cn  h-»  ON  N)  L* 

^^i^vOC/JOOOJOOOJ-vIls)  10 

o^-^ixjoooa^toooooN  • 


IN)  K)  IN)  tO  K)  l\)  Is)  ts)  IN)  IN)  N) 


C.J  00  Co  00  IO  M  tO  M  tO  0s  •  H»  M 

ON4^lN)OOOON4i.tOOOO<^    ' 


M 
NO'<rCnC>J»-»NO'<ICnC»J>-J   • 


*vl  IO  -^7  M  O^  t-1  O^  M  Cri  O    w 


4^tOOGO^4^tOOOO^\    ' 

ooooooooooxoooooooo 


I 

CO 

i  Cn  C>  O"\  "<t  00 
H*   Cn  i— '  -<I  4^-  >-^ 

1 


4^4^4^4^4^4^4^4^4^  ' 


^*  H^    B* 
hJOO   n 

OO»-«   t» 


>-''k-l  ft 

>-'4i.   J» 


C»J^NOlN)Cn 
CnCnCnCnCn 


1  j    -->    —    — 


C*j  NO  Cn  to  sO  4^  >"^  *^I  C*J  NO 

tototofowtototototo 


00  4^  O  ^  10 


NO  NO  NO  NO  NO  NO  NO  NO 


. 
O 

NO 


2lS 


TABLE  XII.— CON. 


1/5101/51/51/5  U5  LO1-OiO 


TH  <x  Tt-  \o  i^  ON   c-  co  10  NO 


ON  ^t*  ON  "^t*  ON  ^t*  ON  ^t* 


1/51/51/51/51/51/51/51/5 


w 

w 
na 
o 

i— i 

H 

« 

D 

8" 

O 
H 
g. 

w 

g 

H 

a 

s 

H 

w 

CJ 

w 
a 
<5 
& 

§• 


O  O  O  O  O  O 

UjiOLOiOioiOiO 

1^  C^  t^  (N  t>-  CS  IN  C4  t>»  CM 


N    rq  1-  CN  l^  O)  1^  (N  1^  O)  l^  C4 


8  o  o  o  o 

rH  \O  rH  vO  rH 
VO  rH  l>  CM  00 


'OiOU^iOlO 


^O  O  ^O  O  LO  O 


O  t>-  •<*•  TH  00 


§\O  rO  O  1"^  "^J"  C*l 
ONOOt^-iOTJ-rO 

S    rHTtOOC^^O^ 


Ol^TfrHXLO 


9   OOC^^DONr^^rHiOON 

U    ONvOCSOOU^rHX^O 

?N  ^  iO  l^-  ON  O  ca  •<*• 


vo  i/j  1/5 

-^-rHOOvOr 


U  00  ^  O  l>-  rO  O  NO  C-l  ON 


00  X  00  00  X  X 


O10U':1- 
i>  X  O 


fNJ 


rH  f<5  U5   O  00  ON  rH 


l^-^-rHGOuofM 


TABLE  XII.— CON, 


219 


00  4^ 
OtO 


Cn  I-1  ^1 
tO4'-ON 


0000000000 


0000  00. 


CO  CO  tO  tO  tO  H*  M  M  O  O  p  2  ' 

>— '  Co  Cn  •<!  \O  i— '  Co  Cn  <!  g 

H 


^  VO  H-»  N 

t-4^  4^  - 


H»  -v?  C*J  O  O"- 


s- 
\O  t-  'C/JCn-vi^Oi-^OJC.n-vI^O    N 

OOOO"OOOOOOO    * 


-- 

oocxuooooooooo 


n 

5 
n 

i 

H 
H- i 

W 
H 
W 

03 

!  - 


O  O 


ON  Cn  4^  4"  Co  Co  to  >-»  h-*  O  O 
^  4^  00  to  O"^  O  4^  OC  tO  O^  O  a 


p>  Cn  Cn  *• 

tO  O^  O  C»J  M  M 


ON  Cn  Cn  4^  OJ  Co  to  ls>  t-*   O 


ONCnCn^CoCotOtsJh-'OO 

^J  M  Cn 

\D  00  *<I 
Cn  Cn  Cn 

0000 


H*  Cn  ^O  Co  5* 

Cn  Ln  Cn  Oi  ^ 

O  O  O  O 


ON  O^-  ON  ON  ON  ON  ON  ON  ON  ON 
OOOOOOOOOO 


84*  00 
IO  h-» 

VO  vo  VO  vO 
O  O  O  O 


220 


TABLE  XII.— CON. 


09 


o 

Q 


»      B  i>  c*j  o^ 

O    t^  l^  >O 


^ 


I    S 


rH  fH  »H  O  O 
r-(Tj-l>Or<) 


INDEX. 


A. 

Acetate  of  Lead,  166. 
Acetic  Acid  Bottles,  41. 
Acid,  Special,  168. 
Acids,  Crude,  160. 
Air-Funnel,  67. 
Alcohol  Digest,  60. 
Alcohol  Extraction,  58. 
Alkalimeter,  Peffer's,  97. 
Alkalinities,  74. 
Alumina  Cream,  166. 
Ammonia,  Anhydrous,  156. 
Ammonium  Citrate  Solution,  171 
Analysis  by  Weight,  50. 
Apparatus,  Geissler's,  97. 
Apparatus,  Orsat's,  128. 
Apparatus,  Scheibler's,  122. 
Ash  of  Syrup  or  Massecuite,  145- 
150. 

B 

Balling  Saccharometer,  20. 

Baryta  Solution,  172. 

Baur  and  Portius,  79. 

Beakers,  28,  90. 

Baume   Hydrometer   for    Liquids 

Lighter  than  Water,  20,  115. 
Baume  Hydrometers,  20. 
Beets,  55-61. 
Beet  Seed,  151. 
Boneblack,  119-128. 
Brix  Saccharometer,  20. 
Brysselbout,  E.  E.,  52. 
Burettes,  41,  94. 
Burette,  Franke's  Gas,  131. 


Castor  Oil,  157. 
Chimney  Gases,  128-133. 
Clarification,  43. 
CO2  in  Saturation  Gas,  75. 
Coal,  114. 
Cochineal,  169. 
Cocoanut  Oil,  157. 
Coefficient,  the  Value,  52. 
Coefficient  of  Purity   (see  Quo- 
tient of  Purity.) 
Coke,  115. 
Cossettes,  62. 
Crucibles,  92. 
Crucible  Tongs,  94. 
Crude  Acids,  160. 
Cylinders,  17,  94 


D. 

Dessicators,  92. 
Diffusion  Juice,  64. 
Dishes,  92,  94. 
Dropping  Bottles,  25. 
Drying  Over,  91. 
Dry  Substance  22. 


E. 

Ether  Bottles,  25. 
Erdmann's  Floats,  41. 
Evaporation  Dishes,  94. 


222 


INDEX. 


F. 

Faurot,  Henry,  156. 

Fehling's  Solution,  170. 

Fertilizers,  134-140. 

Fibre  in  Beet,  60. 

Filling  Flasks,  45. 

Filter  Paper,  27,  91. 

Filter  Press   Cakes     (See    Lime 

Cakes). 

Flash  Test  ot  Oils,  117,  159. 
Flasks  for  Specific  Gravity,  19. 
Flasks  for  Sugar  Analysis,  25. 
Flasks,  Volumetric,  94. 
Floats,  Erdmann's,  41. 
Fluxes,  160. 

Franke'sGas  Burette,  131. 
Fresenius,  C.  R.,  40.  108,  115. 
Fuel  Oil,  115-118. 
Funnels  (Air),  for  Syrups,  67. 
Funnels,  27,  90. 

Q. 

Gases,  Chimney,  128-133. 
Geissler's  Apparatus,  97. 
Gird,  W.  K.,  47. 
Glass,  Powdered,  172. 
Glass  Rods,  90. 
Gravimeter,  47. 

H. 

Hydrometers,  20,  115. 
Hydrochloric  Acid,  Normal,  167. 


Indicator  Bottles,  42. 
Invert  Sugar,  86. 


J. 

Juices,  thick,  66. 
Juices,  thin,  66. 

K. 

Kiehle  Machine,  57,  62. 
Kipp's  Apparatus,  42. 
Kissel,  102. 
"Known  Sugar  "  Solutions,  35. 

L. 

Lamps,  93. 
Lampstands,  94. 
Lard  Oil,  157. 
Lead  Acetate,  166. 
Lead  Bottles,  40. 
Lime,  72,  113. 
Lime  Cakes,  64. 
Lime  Powder,  78. 
Lime,  Refuse,  141-144. 
Lime,  Slacking  Test  of,  79. 
Limestone,  109-113. 
Linseed  Oil,  158. 
Lktnus  Paper,  169. 
Litmus  Solution,  169. 

M. 

Magnesia  Mixture,  171. 
Massecuite  Ash,  145-150. 
Massecuites,  68. 
Meniscus,  25. 
Milk  of  Lime,  73. 
Mohr's  Pinchcocks,  42. 
Moisture  Determination,  23. 
Molasses  Saccharate,  80 
Molasses  Solution,  81. 
Molybdic  Solution,  171. 
Mortars,  65,  94. 


INDEX. 


223 


N. 

Nasmyth,  159. 
Nealsfoot  Oil,  158. 
Nicol's  Prism,  29. 
Nitric  Acid,  Normal,  168. 
Non-Normal  Analysis,  51. 
Normal  Hydrochloric  Acid,  167. 
Normal  Nitric  Acid,  168. 
Normal  Sodium  Solution,  167. 
Normal  Sulphuric  Acid,  167. 

O. 

Oil,  Fuel,  115-118. 
Oils,  Lubricating,  157-161. 
Olive  Oil,  158. 
Orsat's  Apparatus,  128. 

P. 

Peffer's  Alkalimeter,  97. 

Phenol,  168 

Pinchcocks,  42. 

Pipettes,  94. 

-Pipette  Solution,  171. 

Pipettes,  Sucrose,  23. 

Pipette  Test,  47. 

Pipette,  Testinga,  26. 

Polariscopes,  28-38 

Portius,  Baur  and,  79. 

Powdered  Glass  or  Sand,  172. 

Preparation  of  Samples,  43. 

Pulp,  Pressed,  63. 

Pulp,  Wet,  62. 

Purity,  Quotient  of,  51. 

Pycnometers,  18. 

Q. 

Quotient  of  Purity,  51. 
Quotient,  Saline,  52. 


Raffinose,  85. 
Rapeseed  Oil,  158. 
Reagents,  166-172. 
Refuse  Lime,  141-144. 
Rendetnent,  52. 
Rieckes,  H.,  73. 
Rosolic  Acid,  169. 
Rust  Joints,  160. 


Saccharometers,  20. 

Saccharate  Milk,  81. 

Saccharate,  Molasses,  80. 

Saccharate  of  Lime,  78. 

Saline  Quotient,  52. 

Samples,  Preparation  of,  43. 

Sand,  172. 

Saturation  Gas,  75. 

Scales,  39. 

Scheibler's  Apparatus,  122. 

Scheibler's  Method  for  Fibre  in 

Beet,  61. 

Sickel-Soxhlet  Apparatus,  58. 
Silver  Nitrate,  170, 
Siphon  Bottle,  40. 
Slacking  Test  of  Lime,  79. 
Soda,  160. 

Sodium,  Normal,  167. 
Soxhlet's   Method    for  Invert 

Sugar,  87. 
Special  Acid,  168. 
Specific  Gravity,  18. 
Spencer,  G.  L.,  45,  166. 
Stillman,  99. 
Stoves,  93. 
Sucrose,  Correct  Percentage    of, 

82. 


.' 


224 


INDEX. 


s. 

Sucrose  in    Presence     of    Invert 

Sugar,  82. 
Sucrose  in  Presence  of  Raffinose, 

85. 

Sucrose  Pipettes,  23. 
Sugar,  68. 
Sulphur,  155. 

Sulphuric  Acid,  Normal,  167. 
Syrup  Ash,  145-150. 
Syrups,  67. 
Sweet  Waters,  66. 

T. 

Tallow,  158. 

Test  Tube  with  Foot,  17. 
Thermometers,  42. 
Thin  Juices,  66. 
T-Tube  for  Burettes,  41. 
Tucker,J.  H.,  45,  52,  125. 
Turck,  E.,  57. 
Turmeric  Paper,  170. 


V. 

Value  Coefficient,  52. 
Varner,  J.  E.,  28. 
Volumetric  Method,  45. 

W. 

Wanklyn,  97,  102. 
Washing  Bottle,  41,  94. 
Waste  Water,  63 
Waste  Water,  Steffens,  80. 
Water  Analysis,  95-108. 
Water  Baths,  94. 
Water  Bottles,  40. 
Water  Digest,  57. 
Westphal  Balance,  18. 
Wet  Pulp,  63. 


H.  T.  OXNARD,  W.  BflUR, 

President.  Executive  Officer  and 

Consulting  Eogineer. 

•  Oxnard  Construction  Co, 


CONSTRUCTORS   AND    BUILDERS 
OF   COMPLETE 


CONSULTING   ENGINEERS, 
CHEMISTS  AND  AGRICULTURISTS 


Office  32  Na88au  Street,          New  York  City. 


THIS  Company  will  assist  in  every  way  the  development  of  the 
Sugar  Industry  in  this  country.  It  has  various  departments, 
such  as  an  Agricultural  Department  and  a  Construction  Depart- 
ment. These  departments  will  thoroughly  investigate  questions 
of  climate  and  soil,  and  will  give  directions  in  growing  beets,  cane, 
etc.  Testing  beets,  water,  soil  and  all  supplies  necessary  for  the 
process  of  sugar  making.  The  investigations  will  be  made  by  expert 
agriculturists,  familiar  with  the  raising  of  sugar  plants  in  this 
country.  The  Construction  Department  will  undertake  the  entire 
building  of  factories,  complete  in  every  respect,  and  is  prepared  to 
guarantee  their  capacity.  This  Company  is  able  to  undertake  the 
full  equipment  of  a  newly  built  factory,  with  the  necessary  officers 
and  men,  and  run  the  factory,  if  desired,  for  the  first  year. 


EIMER  &  AMEND 


205-211  THIRD  AVENUE,  NEW  YORK  CITY, 


IMPORTERS  AND  MANUFACTURERS  OF 


Physical  Apparatus 

Strictfy  Chemicaffy  Pure  (hemicafs  and  Acids, 


Special  Attention  given  to  the  fitting  out  of  Laboratories 
for  Sugar  Analysis. 


AGENTS   FOR 

SCHMIDT  &  HAENSCH'S  POLAR/SCOPES, 
GREINER  &  FRIEDRICH'S  GERMAN  GLASSWARE, 
SCHLEICHER  &  SCHUELL'S  C.  P.  FILTER  PAPERS, 
FINEST  ANALYTICAL  BALANCES  AND  WEIGHTS, 
SCHEIBLER'S  ALKALIMETER  AND  HYDROMETERS, 
DESMOUTIS  HAMMERED  PLATINUM, 
CRUCIBLES  AND  DISHES. 


We  carry  a  complete  stock  of  Beakers,  Flasks,  Burettes,  Pipettes, 
Sucrose  Pipettes,  Saccharometers,  Cylinders,  Lamps,  Stoves,  and 
all  supplies  needed  for  testing  sugars  Any  apparatus  or  chemical 
mentioned  in  "BEET  SUGAR  ANALYSIS"  can  be  obtained  from  us 
at  the  lowest  price. 

EIMER  &  AMEND,  New  York. 


Guild  &  Garrison 

BHOOKLg/M,  /S.  g. 


MANUFACTURERS    OF 


Special  Pumping  Machinery 

FOR  BEET  SUGflR  FACTORIES 


Vacuum  Pumps, 

Carbonic  Acid  Blowers, 

Milk  of  Lime  Pumps, 

Filter  Press  Pumps, 

* 

Air  Compressors, 

Boiler  Feed  Pumps, 

Liquor  and  Syrup  Pumps, 

Water  Pumps,  etc. 


The 

Link-Belt 
MachineryCo. 

EnQineers,  Founders,  Machinists 


PRINCIPAL  OFFICE  AND  WORKS: 

39th  St.  and  Stewart  flve.  Chicago,  U.  S.  ft. 

SOUTHERN  DEPARTMENT: 

316-318  St,  Charles  Street         New  Orleans,  La. 


Modern  Methods 

As  applied  to  the  handling"  of  Sugar  Cane  and  its  pro- 
ducts,  employing"  the  Kwart  Detachable  lyink- 
Belting,  Dodge  and  Special  Carrier  Chains. 


Traveling  Cane  Hoists,  Juice  Strainers,  Bagasse  Feeders, 
Sugar  Shakers,  etc. 


Shafting,     Pulleys,     Gearing,    Rope    Sheaves,    Friction 
Clutches,   etc. 


California  cotton 
Mills  60, 

Office  and  Works,  East  Oakland,  Gal. 

Manufacturers  of  all  kinds  of 

Cotton  and  Jute  Fabrics 

From  the  Raw  Material. 


ALSO   MANUFACTURE   ALL  KINDS   OF 


Press,  Strainer  and  Filter  Glottis 

SPECIALLY   SUITED   FOR 

Beet  Sugar  Factories  and  Refineries. 


Correspondence   solicited,    and   all  enquiries  shall  have 
prompt  and  careful  attention. 

ADDRESS  AS  ABOVE. 


KLEI/MWA/MZLEBE/M  ORIGINAL 

Beet  Seed 

The  Preferred  Seed  used  by  all  of  the  American 
Beet  Sugar  Factories, 


GROWN    BY   THE 


SUGAR  FACTORY  KLEINWANZLEBEN,  GERMANY. 

Represented  in  the  United  States  by 

MEYER  &  RAAPKE,  Omaha,  /Neb. 

ALBERT  W.    WALBURN,  MAGNUS   SWENSON, 

PRESIDENT  AND    TREASURER.  SECRETARY   AND    MANAGER. 

WALBUR/N=SWENSO/N  CO. 

Engineers,  Founders  and   Machinists 


BUILDERS    OF   THE    MOST 
IMPROVED 


Beet  Sugar  Machinery 


COMPLETE  BEET  SUGAR  PLANTS  and 
CENTRAL  FACTORIES  A  SPECIALTY 


Works  :  General  Office  : 

Chicago  Heights  944  Monadnock  Block,  Chicago 


KEYSTONE 


Saw,  Tool,  Steel  and  File  Works 


HENRY  DISSTON  &  SONS 


PHILADELPHIA,  PEN/MA. 
U.  S.  A. 


California  Chemical  Works 


fllso  Successor  to  GOLDEN  CITY  CflEMICflL  WORKS 


Manufacture 


ALSO  CHEMICALLY  PURE  ACIDS 
OF  ALL  KINDS 


Reynolds'  Excelsior   Solderine  ;   Sulphur — Crude, 

Sublimed,  Powdered,  Roll, Refined,  and  Virgin 

Rock;  Nitrate  of  Soda,  Carbon  Bi-sulphide, 

Iron  Wine  Ethers  and  other 

Chemicals. 


Write  us  for  price  list. 

California  Chemical  Works 

JOHN  REYNOLDS,  Prop. 

San  Bruno  Road  and  27th  St.  San  Francisco,  Gal. 

TELEPHONE,  MISSION  3O 


Revere  Rubber  Co. 


MANUFACTURERS    OF 
ALL   KINDS   OF   . 


Rubber  Goods   for   Beet  Sugar 
Factories 

We  have  a  complete  outfit  of  moulds  for  making- 
Evaporator  Reheater,  larg-e  and  Small  Filter  Rings  of 
all  kinds.  Ring's  for  Calorisators,  Dantzenburg-  Ring's, 
Diffusion  Ring's,  Battery  Gaskets,  Air  Pump  Gaskets, 
Strainer  Ring's,  Gaskets  for  Campbell  &  Zell  Boilers. 
Valves  for  all  kinds  of  Pumps,  including-  Carbonic  Acid 
Pumps,  Diffusion  and  Filter  Presses,  Steffins'  Cooler. 
Rectangular  and  Square  Packing-  for  Manholes  and 
Doors,  and  Packing's  for  Diffusion,  Vacuum  Pans,  and 
Coolers,  etc. 

Also  manufacturers  of  a  full  line  of  Belting-  and 
Hose  of  all  kinds  and  descriptions. 

Principal  offices  for  distribution, 

CHICAGO  and 
SA/\  FRANCISCO 

Also  stores  at  New  York,  Holjoke,  Philadelphia,  Balti- 
more, Buffalo,  Pittsburg-,  Cincinnati,  Cleveland, 
Minneapolis,  St.  Louis,  New  Orleans,  Leicester, 
Eng. ;  London  and  Paris. 

HOME  OFFICE,  BOSTON.       FACTORY  AT  CHELSEA,  MASS. 


ROBERT  DEELEY  &  GO. 

r    Foot  ot  West  32nd  St..  New  York    a 

» 

Engineers,  Founders 

and  Machinists 


Manufacturers  of  Improved  Sugar  Machinery 
for  Plantations  and  Refineries. 


DUBE'S  PATENT  GREEN  BAGASSE  BURNER. 


Vacuum  Pans,  Double  and  Triple  Effects,  Cane 
Mills,  Centrifugals,  Defecators,  Clarifiers, 
Sugar  Wagons,  Steam  Engines., 
Boilers,  Engineers'  Sup- 
plies, Etc. 


COMPLETE   PLA/NITS  A   SPECIALTY. 


Schaffer  &  Budenbcrg 


MANUFACTURERS  OF 


PRESSURE  GflUGES 


Thermometers,  Eue  Glasses,  Surup  Testers, 

Butter  Gups  and  other  Vacuum 

Pan  Appliances 


STEflM  TRflPS.REDUGING  VftLVES 

Thompson  Steam  Engine  Indicators 


Water  Gauges,  Brass  Gocks  and 
Valves,  etc. 


WORKS:    BROOKLYN,  /N.  Y, 


SALESROOMS  : 

No.  15  W.  Lake  St.,  No.  66  John  St., 

Chicago.  New  York. 


HAROLD  P.  DYER  EDWARD  F.  DYER  E.  H.  DYER 

E,  H.  DYER  &  COMPANY  ' 

Engineers,  Chemists  and 
Agricufturists 


MANUFACTURERS  OF  MACHINERY 


A    SPECIALTY 

WE  built  the  Standard,  Lehi  and  Los  Alamitos  beet 
sugar  factories.  We  are  prepared  to  build  complete 
Beet  Sug-ar  Plants,  Factories  and  Refineries  from  founda- 
tions up.  Machinery,  Building's,  Water  Systems,  Rail- 
roads, all  and  every  part  that  is  required  for  a  complete 
plant ;  furnish  all  the  technical,  skilled  and  unskilled 
employees  to  operate  the  plant  for  any  leng'th  of  time, 
and  to  educate  the  owners  how  to  operate  them  success- 
fully. Expert  services  furnished.  Correspondence 
solicited.  Address 

E,  H.  DYER  8  COMPANY, 

Cor.  Lake  and  Kirtland  Sts.  CLEVELAND,  OHIO. 


THE 


Kifby  Manufacturing  Company 

POUNDERS 

:.,   AND  MACHINISTS 

* 


New  York  Office. 

144  Times  Building 


CLEVELAND,  OHIO 


BUILDERS   Of 


(ompfete  Winery  for  Beet  Cane  and 
Gfuco^e  Suoarfiouses  and  Refineries 


The  Risdon  Iron  Works 


OFFICE  AND  WORKS,  SAN  FRANCISCO 


DESIGNERS 


ENGINEERS 


For  Complete  Machinery  for  Beet, 
Cane  and  Glucose  Factories 


OF  ILL 


Marsh  Steam  Pumps 


FOR 


Sugar  House  Work 


Minimum 

of 

Weig-ht, 

Wear 

and 

Waste 


Patent  Self-Governing-  Steam  Valve. 

Patent  Easy  Seating-  Water  Valves. 

No  Outside  Valve  Gear. 


DRY  VACUUM  PUMPS, 

SWEET  WATER  PUMPS, 

FILTER  PRESS  PUMPS, 

CONDENSATION  PUMPS, 

BOILER  FEED  PUMPS, 

MANUFACTURED   BY 

The  Battle  Creek  Steam  Pump  Co. 

BATTLE  CREEK,  MICH. 

Write  for  Catalogue. 


BECAUSE  IT 
WILL    LAST    A 

YEAR. 


i^  Cheaper  than  Rubber! 

Guaranteed  to  stani  any  Pressnre,   Gaskets  Sent  on  30  Days  Trial  is  Our  Proof. 
GUILLOTT  METALLIC  GASKET  CO.. 


CHICAGO,  ILL. 


Manufacturers  ot 

METAL 

in  allStyles  and  Plzee  of  Manhole, 
HandhoJe,  Flange  and  Union  Gaskets. 

GASKETS 

for  Cylinder  Heads.  Heaters  and  Lard 
Tanks  from  1  to  100  in.  inside  diam. 

GASKETS 

for  Heine  Boiler  Tubes,  Campbell 

amd  Zell,  and  Standard  Boiier  Hand 

Holes,  Stirling  Boiler  Manholes. 


ICE  MACHINE  BASKETS. 

For  Sale  by  all  Dealers. 


GiisUrechtBiitchers'SiipplyCo. 

I2th  AND  PASS  AVE.,  ST.  LOUIS,  MO. 

HAND  AND  POWER  .... 

MEAT  GUTTERS  AND  CHOPPERS 

of  all  kinds.     Machines  especially  adapted  for  the  pre- 
paration of  samples  for 

PULP,  GOSSETTE  AND  BEET  ANALYSIS 

Our  improved  power  draw-cut  choppers  give  samples  fine 
enoug-h  for  the  most  accurate  water  and  alcohol 
dig-ests.  Order  an  Enterprise  Hand  Chopper  for 
pulp  samples.  Send  for  Catalogue. 

BUS  V.  BRECHT  BUTCHERS'  SUPPLY  GO. 


The   Audubon   Sugar   School, 
Louisiana  State  University, 
Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College, 

luccessfully  conducted  for  several  years  by  Dr.  Wm.  C.  Stubbs  at 
he  Sugar  Experiment  Station,  Audubon  Park,  New  Orleans,  has 
ieen  removed  to  the  University  at  Baton  Rouge. 

Dr.  Stubbs,  Professor  of  Agriculture  in  the  University  and 
Mrector  of  its  Experiment  Stations,  will  continue  in  charge  of  the 
>ugar  School,  and  conduct  it  on  a  more  extensive  scale. 

Its  aim  is  to  make  "Sugar  Experts" — men  who  can  intelligently 
;row  cane,  plan  and  erect  a  sugar  house,  run  it  as  engineer  or  sugar- 
naker,  and  take  the  products,  either  of  field  or  sugar  house,  to  the 
aboratory  and  subject  them  to  accurate  analysis. 

Regular  Course  of  four  years,  embraces  instruction  in  the 
Growing  of  Cane,  Beets  and  Sorghum;  in  the  Designing,  Construc- 
iou  and  Operation  of  Sugar  Houses;  in  the  Practical  Manipulation 
f  Sugar,  and  in  the  Chemistry  of  the  products.  It  leads  to 
;raduation. 

Irregular  Course  is  designed  to  meet  the  wants  of  Sugar- 
makers,  Engineers  or  Planters  who  have  not  the  time  to  take  the 
egular  course,  but  who  wish  a  knowledge  of  the  principals  upon 
yhich  their  practical  work  is  done.  Such  students  may  enter  the 
chool  at  any  time,  and  take  such  studies  as  they  may  elect. 

Session  1897-'93  begins  September  15,  1897,  and  closes  June 
.5,  1898.  *  •• 

THOMAS  D.  BOYD,  L,L.  D.,  President. 

JOHN  H.  MURPHY 


-MANUFACTURER    OF 


SUGAR  MACHINERY 

633  TO  643  MAGAZINE  ST.,  NEW.ORLEANS,  LA. 

Vacuum  Pans,  to  boil  with  direct  or  exhaust  steam;  Double  and 
'riple  Effects,  Evaporators  and  Clarifiers,  Strike  Pans,  Sugar 
Vagons,  Chimneys  and  Breechings;  Syrup,  Juice  and  Molasses 
'anks,  Boilers  and  Engines. 

Sole  Agent  for  Louisiana  and  Texas  for  West  Point  Foundry 
mproved  Hepworth  Centrifugals,  the  Eclipse  Filter  Press  for  Cane 
uice  and  Skimmings,  Ludlow  Valve  Mfg.  Co.'s  Valves  and  Hy- 
irants,  Geo.  F.  Blake  Mfg.  Co. 's  Vacuum  Syrup  Juice  and  Water 
'urnps  for  Sugar  Houses  and  Breweries,  Nason  Steam  Traps. 

Dealer  in  Iron  Pipe  Fittings,  Copper  and  Brass  Tubing,  Iron 
nd  Brass  Globe  and  Gate  Valves,  Packing,  Belting  and  General 
>ugar  House  Supplies. 

Will  make  contracts  for  the  construction  of  entire  sugar  house 
nd  machinery  plants  of  modern  design.  Correspondence  solicited. 


Lacy  Manufacturing  Co. 


MANUFACTURERS  OF. 


Steel  Water  Pipe,  Well  Casing, 

OIL  TANKS  AND  GENERAL  SHEET  IRON  WORK 


IRRIGATION  SUPPLIES 


DEALERS    IN    CAST    IRON    PIPE 

Special  attention  given  to  the  manufacture 
of  Sheet  Steel  Tanks  and  all  Sheet  Steel 
Work  for  Sugar  Refineries 

Works:   Corner  /\ew  Main  and  Date  Streets 

OFFICE:  ROOMS  4  AND  5  BAKER  BLOCK 

Telephone  No.   196.  Los  Angeles,  California. 

The  University  of  Nebraska 

(ESTABLISH     D     N    1869) 

Offers  to  young-  men  and  to  young-  women  excellent  op- 
portunities for  a  Collegiate,  Technical  and  University 
Education. 

The  University  is  the  crown  of  the  Free  Public 
School  System  of  the  State.  In  it  is  found  the  continua- 
tion from  the  twelfth  grade  in  the  Hig-h  Schools  of  the 
State  throug-h  the  nineteenth  grade. 

The  University  of  Nebraska  comprises  the  following 
named  Colleges  and  Schools  : 

The  Graduate  School;  The  College  of  literature,  Science  and  the  Arts;  The 
Industrial  College,  including  courses  in  Agriculture,  Engineering  (Civil,  Me- 
chanical and  Electrical),  and  the  General  Sciences;  The  College  of  Law;  The 
School  of  Agriculture;  The  School  of  Mechanic  Arts;  The  Sugar  School;  Special 
Professional  Courses;  General  Preparatory  Courses  in  Law  and  Journalism  and 
in  Medicine;  The  Summer  School;  A  Teachers'  Course. 

The  expenses  of  living  are  extremely  low,  ranging  from  $125  a  year  upward. 
Tuition  is  free,  excepting  a  nominal  matriculation  fee  of  five  dollars  and  a  rea- 
sonable tuition  fee  in  the  professional  schools  of  Law,  Music  and  Art. 

The  Calendar  will  be  sent  free  to  all  persons  who  apply  for  it.  For  Calen- 
dar or  any  information  that  is  desired,  address 

GEO.  K.  MACLEAN,  Chancellor, 

Lincoln,  Nebraska. 


I84O 


HIGHEST  AWARD  1876. 

AMERICAN    MACHINERY   FOR 
AMERICAN    PLANTS    «    *    * 


1897 


AMERICAN  BEET  SUGAR  HACHINERY 

Every  mechanical  part  of  a  plant  for  making  Sugar 
from  Beet  Roots.  .  .  .  Made  here  in  the  United 
States  and  guaranteed  as  good  as  any  that  cau  be  made 
cr  used  for  the  business. 

50  YEARS  OP  PRACTICAL  EXPERIENCE  IN 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  6UGAR  MACHINERY 


Have  furnished 
all  machinery  for 
all  early  Beet 
Plants  at  Port- 
land. Farnham 
and  Wilmington, 
and  for  Experi- 
ment at  Washuig- 
to  >,  D.  C.,  for 
Department  o  f 
Agriculture,  and 
a  t  Government 
Station  at  Mag- 
nolia, Louisiana. 


Beet  Machinery 
of  any  descrip- 
tion, from  Foun- 
dation Bolts  to 
Chimney  Caps. 
Portable  R.  R. 
Buildings,  Eleva- 
tor s  ,  Washers, 
Cutters, Diffusion 
Batteries,  Carbo- 
nation  Tanks  and 
Systems,  Filter 
Presses,  Triple 
Effect,  Pumps, 


Vacuum  Pans,  Centrifugals,  Piping  and  Boilers.    All  Parts  of  a 
Plant  in  all  Details. 


A,  W,  COLWELt 

(onsuftino  and  Contracting  Engineer  for  aff  flatters 
Pertaining  to  Beet  flachineru 


DRAWINGS  ftND  ESTIMATES  FURNIStt&D 


CORRESPONDENCE  SOLICITED 


Address:  39  CortlandtSt,,  New  York  City, 


OF  THB 

TTN"  T  VT.T3  ciTT  V 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 

AN  INITIAL  FINE  OF  25  CENTS 

WILL  BE  ASSESSED  FOR  FAILURE  TO  RETURN 
THIS  BOOK  ON  THE  DATE  DUE.  THE  PENALTY 
WILL  INCREASE  TO  SO  CENTS  ON  THE  FOURTH 
DAY  AND  TO  $1.OO  ON  THE  SEVENTH  DAY 
OVERDUE. 


MJG    16  1934 


YC   18882 


\    ' 


